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114 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage cement kilns, furnaces in industries and iron and steel production plants (see Chapter 2). In these large-scale processes, the direct firing of fuel with air in a combustion chamber has been (for centuries, as it is today) the most economic technology to extract and use the energy contained in the fuel. Therefore, the strategic importance of post-combustion capture systems becomes evident when confronted with the reality of today’s sources of CO2 emissions. Chapter 2 shows that any attempt to mitigate CO2 emissions from stationary sources on a relevant scale using CO2 capture and storage, will have to address CO2 capture from combustion systems. All the CO2 capture systems described in this section are aimed at the separation of CO2 from the flue gases generated in a large-scale combustion process fired with fossil fuels. Similar capture systems can also be applied to biomass fired combustion processes that tend to be used on a much smaller scale compared to those for fossil fuels. in an absorption-based process. Although capture of CO2 in these flue gases is in principle more problematic and energy intensive than from other gas streams, commercial experience is available at a sufficiently large scale (see Section 3.3.2) to provide the basis for cost estimates for post-combustion CO2 capture systems (see Section 3.7). Also, a large R&D effort is being undertaken worldwide to develop more efficient and lower cost post-combustion systems (see Section 3.3.3), following all possible approaches for the CO2 separation step (using sorbents, membranes or cryogenics; see Section 3.1.3). 3.3.2 Existing technologies There are several commercially available process technologies which can in principle be used for CO2 capture from flue gases. However, comparative assessment studies (Hendriks, 1994; Riemer and Ormerod, 1995; IEA GHG, 2000b) have shown that absorption processes based on chemical solvents are currently the preferred option for post-combustion CO2 capture. At this point in time, they offer high capture efficiency and selectivity, and the lowest energy use and costs when compared with other existing post-combustion capture processes. Absorption processes have reached the commercial stage of operation for post-combustion CO2 capture systems, albeit not on the scale required for power plant flue gases. Therefore, the following paragraphs are devoted to a review of existing knowledge of the technology and the key technical and environmental issues relevant to the application of this currently leading commercial option for CO2 capture. The fundamentals of the CO2 separation step using commercial chemical absorption processes are discussed first. The requirements of flue gas pretreatment (removal of pollutants other than CO2) and the energy requirements for regeneration of the chemical solvent follow. 3.3.2.1 Absorption processes Flue gases or stack gases found in combustion systems are usually at atmospheric pressure. Because of the low pressure, the large presence of nitrogen from air and the large scale of the units, huge flows of gases are generated, the largest example of which may be the stack emissions coming from a natural gas combined cycle power plant having a maximum capacity of around 5 million normal m3 h-1. CO2 contents of flue gases vary depending on the type of fuel used (between 3% for a natural gas combined cycle to less than 15% by volume for a coal-fired combustion plant See Table 2.1). In principle post-combustion capture systems can be applied to flue gases produced from the combustion of any type of fuel. However, the impurities in the fuel are very important for the design and costing of the complete plant (Rao and Rubin, 2002). Flue gases coming from coal combustion will contain not only CO2, N2, O2 and H2O, but also air pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulates, HCl, HF, mercury, other metals and other trace organic and inorganic contaminants. Figure 3.3 shows a general schematic of a coal-fired power plant in which additional unit operations are deployed to remove the air pollutants prior to CO2 capture Figure 3.3 Schematic of a pulverized coal-fired power plant with an amine-based CO2 capture system and other emission controls.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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