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Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 4.3.5 Operation Liquid CO2 is charged from the temporary storage tank to the cargo tank with pumps adapted for high pressure and low temperature CO2 service. The cargo tanks are first filled and pressurized with gaseous CO2 to prevent contamination by humid air and the formation of dry ice. Heat transfer from the environment through the wall of the cargo tank will boil CO2 and raise the pressure in the tank. It is not dangerous to discharge the CO2 boil-off gas together with the exhaust gas from the ship’s engines, but doing so does, of course, release CO2 to the air. The objective of zero CO2 emissions during the process of capture and storage can be achieved by using a refrigeration unit to capture and liquefy boil-off and exhaust CO2. Liquid CO2 is unloaded at the destination site. The volume occupied by liquid CO2 in the cargo tanks is replaced with dry gaseous CO2, so that humid air does not contaminate the tanks. This CO2 could be recycled and reliquefied when the tank is refilled. The CO2 tanker will return to the port for the next voyage. When the CO2 tanker is in dock for repair or regular inspection, gas CO2 in cargo tank should be purged with air for safe working. For the first loading after docking, cargo tanks should be fully dried, purged and filled with CO2 gas. 4.4 Risk, safety and monitoring 4.4.1 Introduction 187 4.3.5.1 Loading spite of occasional serious pollution incidents such as the Exxon Valdes and Torrey Canyon disasters (van Bernem and Lubbe, 1997). Because the consequences of CO2 pipeline accidents potentially are of significant concern, stricter regulations for CO2 pipelines than those for natural gas pipelines currently are in force in the USA. 4.4.2 Land pipelines 4.3.5.2 Transport to the site Land pipelines are built to defined standards and are subject to regulatory approval. This sometimes includes independent design reviews. Their routes are frequently the subject of public inquiries. The process of securing regulatory approval generally includes approval of a safety plan, of detailed monitoring and inspection procedures and of emergency response plans. In densely populated areas the process of planning, licensing and building new pipelines may be difficult and time-consuming. In some places it may be possible to convert existing hydrocarbon pipelines into CO2 pipelines. 4.3.5.3 Unloading Pipelines in operation are monitored internally by pigs (internal pipeline inspection devices) and externally by corrosion monitoring and leak detection systems. Monitoring is also done by patrols on foot and by aircraft. 4.3.5.4 Return to port in ballast, and dry-docking The incidence of failure is relatively small. Guijt (2004) and the European Gas Pipeline Incident Data Group (2002) show that the incidence of failure has markedly decreased. Guijt quotes an incident rate of almost 0.0010 km-1 year-1 in 1972 falling to below 0.0002 km-1 year-1 in 2002. Most of the incidents refer to very small pipelines, less than 100 mm in diameter, principally applied to gas distribution systems. The failure incidence for 500 mm and larger pipelines is very much lower, below 0.00005 km-1 year-1. These figures include all unintentional releases outside the limits of facilities (such as compressor stations) originating from pipelines whose design pressures are greater than 1.5 MPa. They cover many kinds of incidents, not all of them serious, and there is substantial variation between pipelines, reflecting factors such as system age and inspection frequency. Ships of similar construction with a combination of cooling and pressure are currently operated for carrying other industrial gases. There are calculable and perceivable risks for any transportation option. We are not considering perceivable risks because this is beyond the scope of the document. Risks in special cases such as military conflicts and terrorist actions have now been investigated. At least two conferences on pipeline safety and security have taken place, and additional conferences and workshops are planned. However, it is unlikely that these will lead to peer-reviewed journal articles because of the sensitivity of the issue. The corresponding incident figures for western European oil pipelines have been published by CONCAWE (2002). In 1997-2001 the incident frequency was 0.0003 km-1 yr-1. The corresponding figure for US onshore gas pipelines was 0.00011 km-1 yr-1 for the 1986-2002 period, defining an incident as an event that released gas and caused death, inpatient hospitalization or property loss of US$ 50,000: this difference in reporting threshold is thought to account for the difference between European and US statistics (Guijt, 2004). Pipelines and marine transportation systems have an established and good safety record. Comparison of CO2 systems with these existing systems for long-distance pipeline transportation of gas and oil or with marine transportation of oil, yidds that risks should be comparable in terms of failure and accident rates.For the existing transport system these incidents seem to be perceived by the broad community as acceptable in Lelieveld et al. (2005) examined leakage in 2400 km of the Russian natural gas pipeline system, including compressor stations, valves and machine halls, and concluded that ‘...overall, the leakage from Russian natural gas transport systems is about 1.4% (with a range of 1.0-2.5%), which is comparable with the amount lost from pipelines in the United States (1.5±0.5%)’. Those numbers refer to total leakage, not to leakage per kilometre. Gale and Davison (2002) quote incident statistics for CO2PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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