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188 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage pipelines in the USA. In the 1990-2002 period there were 10 incidents, with property damage totalling US$ 469,000, and no injuries nor fatalities. The incident rate was 0.00032 km-1 yr-1. However, unlike oil and gas, CO2 does not form flammable or explosive mixtures with air. Existing CO2 pipelines are mainly in areas of low population density, which would also tend to result in lower average impacts. The reasons for the incidents at CO2 pipelines were relief valve failure (4 failures), weld/ gasket/valve packing failure (3), corrosion (2) and outside force (1). In contrast, the principal cause of incidents for natural gas pipelines is outside force, such as damage by excavator buckets. Penetration by excavators can lead to loss of pipeline fluid and sometimes to fractures that propagate great distances. Preventative measures such as increasing the depth of cover and use of concrete barriers above a pipeline and warning tape can greatly reduce the risk. For example, increasing cover from 1 m to 2 m reduces the damage frequency by a factor of 10 in rural areas and by 3.5 in suburban areas (Guijt, 2004). The incidence of failure in service is again low. Dragging ships’ anchors causes some failures, but that only occurs in shallow water (less than 50 m). Very rarely do ships sink on to pipelines, or do objects fall on to them. Pipelines of 400 mm diameter and larger have been found to be safe from damage caused by fishing gear, but smaller pipelines are trenched to protect them. Damage to underwater pipelines was examined in detail at a conference reported on in Morris and Breaux (1995). Palmer and King (2004) examine case studies of marine pipeline failures, and the technologies of trenching and monitoring. Most failures result from human error. Ecological impacts from a CO2 pipeline accident have yet to be assessed. Carbon dioxide leaking from a pipeline forms a potential physiological hazard for humans and animals. The consequences of CO2 incidents can be modelled and assessed on a site-specific basis using standard industrial methods, taking into account local topography, meteorological conditions, population density and other local conditions. A study by Vendrig et al. (2003) has modelled the risks of CO2 pipelines and booster stations. A property of CO2 that needs to be considered when selecting a pipeline route is the fact that CO2 is denser than air and can therefore accumulate to potentially dangerous concentrations in low lying areas. Any leak transfers CO2 to the atmosphere. 4.4.4 Ships If substantial quantities of impurities, particularly H2S, are included in the CO2, this could affect the potential impacts of a pipeline leak or rupture. The exposure threshold at which H2S is immediately dangerous to life or health, according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, is 100 ppm, compared to 40,000 ppm for CO2. Ship systems can fail in various ways: through collision, foundering, stranding and fire. Perrow’s book on accidents (1984) includes many thought-provoking case studies. Many of the ships that he refers to were old, badly maintained and crewed by inadequately trained people. However, it is incorrect to think that marine accidents happen only to poorly regulated ‘flag-of-convenience’ ships. Gottschalch and Stadler (1990) share Perrow’s opinion that many marine accidents can be attributed to system failures and human factors, whereas accidents arising as a consequence of purely technical factors are relatively uncommon. If CO2 is transported for significant distances in densely populated regions, the number of people potentially exposed to risks from CO2 transportation facilities may be greater than the number exposed to potential risks from CO2 capture and storage facilities. Public concerns about CO2 transportation may form a significant barrier to large-scale use of CCS. At present most electricity generation or other fuel conversion plants are built close to energy consumers or sources of fuel supply. New plants with CO2 capture could be built close to CO2 storage sites, to minimize CO2 transportation. However, this may necessitate greater transportation of fuels or electricity, which have their own environmental impacts, potential risks and public concerns. A gathering system would be needed if CO2 were brought from distributed sources to a trunk pipeline, and for some storage options a distribution system would also be needed: these systems would need to be planned and executed with the same regard for risk outlined here. Ship casualties are well summarized by Lloyds Maritime Information Service. Over 22.5 years between 1978 and 2000, there were 41,086 incidents of varying degrees of severity identified, of which 2,129 were classified as ‘serious’ (See Table 4.2). 4.4.3 Marine pipelines Marine pipelines are subject to a similar regulatory regime. An accident to a liquid CO2 tanker might release liquefied gas onto the surface of the sea. However, consideration of such an event is a knowledge gap that requires further study. CO2 releases are anticipated not to have the long-term environmental Marine pipelines are monitored internally by inspection devices called ‘pigs’ (as described earlier in Section 4.2.5), and externally by regular visual inspection from remotely operated vehicles. Some have independent leak detection systems. Tankers can be seen to have higher standards than ships in general. Stranding is the source of most of the tanker incidents that have led to public concern. It can be controlled by careful navigation along prescribed routes, and by rigorous standards of operation. LNG tankers are potentially dangerous, but are carefully designed and appear to be operated to very high standards. There have been no accidental losses of cargo from LNG ships. The LNG tanker El Paso Paul Kaiser ran aground at 17 knots in 1979, and incurred substantial hull damage, but the LNG tanks were not penetrated and no cargo was lost. There is extensive literature on marine transport of liquefied gas, with a strong emphasis on safety, for example, in Ffooks (1993). Carbon dioxide tankers and terminals are clearly much less at risk from fire, but there is an asphyxiation risk if collision should rupture a tank. This risk can be minimized by making certain that the high standards of construction and operation currently applied to LPG are also applied to carbon dioxide.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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