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210 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage flow of solution through the pores. This possibility has not, however, been observed experimentally and its possible effects cannot be quantified. time and at random sites, some of which might be naturally ‘leaky’. At engineered sites, CO2 injection rates will be rapid and the sites will necessarily be penetrated by injection wells (Celia and Bachu, 2003; Johnson et al., 2005). Therefore, care must be taken to keep injection pressures low enough to avoid damaging the caprock (Section 5.5) and to make sure that the wells are properly sealed (Section 5.5). Yet another type of fixation occurs when CO2 is preferentially adsorbed onto coal or organic-rich shales (Section 5.3.4). This has been observed in batch and column experiments in the laboratory, as well as in field experiments at the Fenn Big Valley, Canada and the San Juan Basin, USA (Box 5.7). A rather different form of fixation can occur when CO2 hydrate is formed in the deep ocean seafloor and onshore in permafrost regions (Koide et al., 1997). Natural accumulations of relatively pure CO2 are found all over the world in a range of geological settings, particularly in sedimentary basins, intra-plate volcanic regions (Figure 5.11) and in faulted areas or in quiescent volcanic structures. Natural accumulations occur in a number of different types of sedimentary rocks, principally limestones, dolomites and sandstones and with a variety of seals (mudstone, shale, salt and anhydrite) and a range of trap types, reservoir depths and CO2-bearing phases. 5.2.3 Natural geological accumulations of CO2 Natural sources of CO2 occur, as gaseous accumulations of CO2, CO2 mixed with natural gas and CO2 dissolved in formation water (Figure 5.11). These natural accumulations have been studied in the United States, Australia and Europe (Pearce et al., 1996; Allis et al., 2001; Stevens et al., 2003; Watson et al., 2004) as analogues for storage of CO2, as well as for leakage from engineered storage sites. Production of CO2 for EOR and other uses provides operational experience relevant to CO2 capture and storage. There are, of course, differences between natural accumulations of CO2 and engineered CO2 storage sites: natural accumulations of CO2 collect over very long periods of Carbon dioxide fields in the Colorado Plateau and Rocky Mountains, USA, are comparable to conventional natural gas reservoirs (Allis et al., 2001). Studies of three of these fields (McElmo Dome, St. Johns Field and Jackson Dome) have shown that each contains 1600 MtCO2, with measurable leakage (Stevens et al., 2001a). Two hundred Mt trapped in the Pisgah Anticline, northeast of the Jackson Dome, is thought to have been generated more than 65 million years ago (Studlick et al., 1990), with no evidence of leakage, providing additional Figure 5.11 Examples of natural accumulations of CO2 around the world. Regions containing many occurrences are enclosed by a dashed line. Natural accumulations can be useful as analogues for certain aspects of storage and for assessing the environmental impacts of leakage. Data quality is variable and the apparent absence of accumulations in South America, southern Africa and central and northern Asia is probably more a reflection of lack of data than a lack of CO2 accumulations. Figuur 5.11PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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