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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 211 evidence of long-term trapping of CO2. Extensive studies have been undertaken on small-scale CO2 accumulations in the Otway Basin in Australia (Watson et al., 2004) and in France, Germany, Hungary and Greece (Pearce et al., 2003). Conversely, some systems, typically spas and volcanic systems, are leaky and not useful analogues for geological storage. The Kileaua Volcano emits on average 4 MtCO2 yr-1. More than 1200 tCO2 day–1 (438,000 tCO2 yr-1) leaked into the Mammoth Mountain area, California, between 1990 and 1995, with flux variations linked to seismicity (USGS, 2001b). Average flux densities of 80–160 tCO2 m–2 yr–1 are observed near Matraderecske, Hungary, but along faults, the flux density can reach approximately 6600 t m–2 yr–1 (Pearce et al., 2003). These high seepage rates result from release of CO2 from faulted volcanic systems, whereas a normal baseline CO2 flux is of the order of 10–100 gCO2 m–2 day–1 under temperate climate conditions (Pizzino et al., 2002). Seepage of CO2 into Lake Nyos (Cameroon) resulted in CO2 saturation of water deep in the lake, which in 1987 produced a very large-scale and (for more than 1700 persons) ultimately fatal release of CO2 when the lake overturned (Kling et al., 1987). The overturn of Lake Nyos (a deep, stratified tropical lake) and release of CO2 are not representative of the seepage through wells or fractures that may occur from underground geological storage sites. Engineered CO2 storage sites will be chosen to minimize the prospect of leakage. Natural storage and events such as Lake Nyos are not representative of geological storage for predicting seepage from engineered sites, but can be useful for studying the health, safety and environmental effects of CO2 leakage (Section 5.7.4). Carbon dioxide is found in some oil and gas fields as a separate gas phase or dissolved in oil. This type of storage is relatively common in Southeast Asia, China and Australia, less common in other oil and gas provinces such as in Algeria, Russia, the Paradox Basin (USA) and the Alberta Basin (western Canada). In the North Sea and Barents Sea, a few fields have up to 10% CO2, including Sleipner and Snohvit (Figure 5.11). The La Barge natural gas field in Wyoming, USA, has 3300 Mt of gas reserves, with an average of 65% CO2 by volume. In the Appennine region of Italy, many deep wells (1–3 km depth) have trapped gas containing 90% or more CO2 by volume. Major CO2 accumulations around the South China Sea include the world’s largest known CO2 accumulation, the Natuna D Alpha field in Indonesia, with more than 9100 MtCO2 (720 Mt natural gas). Concentrations of CO2 can be highly variable between different fields in a basin and between different reservoir zones within the same field, reflecting complex generation, migration and mixing processes. In Australia’s Otway Basin, the timing of CO2 input and trapping ranges from 5000 years to a million years (Watson et al., 2004). 5.2.4 Industrial analogues for CO2 storage 5.2.4.1 Natural gas storage Underground natural gas storage projects that offer experience relevant to CO2 storage (Lippmann and Benson, 2003; Perry, 2005) have operated successfully for almost 100 years and in many parts of the world (Figure 5.12). These projects provide for peak loads and balance seasonal fluctuations in gas supply and demand. The Berlin Natural Gas Storage Project is an example of this (Box 5.5). The majority of gas storage projects are in depleted oil and gas reservoirs and saline formations, although caverns in salt have also been used extensively. A number of factors are critical to the success of these projects, including a suitable and adequately characterized site (permeability, thickness and extent of storage reservoir, tightness of caprock, geological structure, lithology, etc.). Injection wells must be properly designed, installed, monitored and maintained and abandoned wells in and near the project must be located and plugged. Finally, taking into account a range of solubility, density and trapping conditions, overpressuring the storage reservoir (injecting gas at a pressure that is well in excess of the in situ formation pressure) must be avoided. Figure 5.12 Location of some natural gas storage projects. While underground natural gas storage is safe and effective, some projects have leaked, mostly caused by poorly completed or improperly plugged and abandoned wells and by leaky faults (Gurevich et al., 1993; Lippmann and Benson, 2003; Perry, 2005). Abandoned oil and gas fields are easier to assess as natural gas storage sites than are saline formations, because the geological structure and caprock are usually well characterized from existing wells. At most natural gas storage sites, monitoring requirements focus on ensuring that the injection well is not leaking (by the use of pressure measurements and through in situ downhole measurements of temperature, pressure, noise/ sonic, casing conditions, etc.). Observation wells are sometimes used to verify that gas has not leaked into shallower strata.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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