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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 221 • For mineral trapping, capacity is calculated on the basis of available minerals for carbonate precipitation and the amount of CO2 that will be used in these reactions. if repressuring the reservoir is limited to preserve reservoir integrity. In Western Canada, this loss was estimated to be in the order of 30% for gas reservoirs and 50% for oil reservoirs if reservoir repressuring with CO2 is limited to the initial reservoir pressure (Bachu et al., 2004). The capacity estimates presented here for oil and gas reservoirs have not included any ‘discounting’ that may be appropriate for water-drive reservoirs because detailed site-specific reservoir analysis is needed to assess the effects of water-drive on capacity on a case-by-case basis. The major impediments to applying these simple methods for estimating the capacity for CO2 storage in geological media are the lack of data, their uncertainty, the resources needed to process data when available and the fact that frequently more than one trapping mechanism is active. This leads to two situations: • Global capacity estimates have been calculated by simplifying assumptions and using very simplistic methods and hence are not reliable; Many storage-capacity estimates for oil and gas fields do not distinguish capacity relating to oil and gas that has already been produced from capacity relating to remaining reserves yet to be produced and that will become available in future years. In some global assessments, estimates also attribute capacity to undiscovered oil and gas fields that might be discovered in future years. There is uncertainty about when oil and gas fields will be depleted and become available for CO2 storage. The depletion of oil and gas fields is mostly affected by economic rather than technical considerations, particularly oil and gas prices. It is possible that production from near-depleted fields will be extended if future economic considerations allow more hydrocarbons to be recovered, thus delaying access to such fields for CO2 storage. Currently few of the world’s large oil and gas fields are depleted. • Country- and region- or basin-specific estimates are more detailed and precise, but are still affected by the limitations imposed by availability of data and the methodology used. Country- or basin-specific capacity estimates are available only for North America, Western Europe, Australia and Japan. The geographical distribution and capacity estimates are presented below and summarized in Table 5.2. This CO2 storage option is restricted to hydrocarbon-producing basins, which represent numerically less than half of the sedimentary provinces in the world. It is generally assumed that oil and gas reservoirs can be used for CO2 storage after their oil or gas reserves are depleted, although storage combined with enhanced oil or gas production can occur sooner. Short of a detailed, reservoir-by-reservoir analysis, the CO2 storage capacity can and should be calculated from databases of reserves and production (e.g., Winter and Bergman, 1993; Stevens et al., 2001b; Bachu and Shaw, 2003, 2005; Beecy and Kuuskra, 2005). 5.3.7.1 Storage in oil and gas reservoirs In hydrocarbon reservoirs with little water encroachment, the injected CO2 will generally occupy the pore volume previously occupied by oil and/or natural gas. However, not all the previously (hydrocarbon-saturated) pore space will be available for CO2 because some residual water may be trapped in the pore space due to capillarity, viscous fingering and gravity effects (Stevens et al., 2001c). In open hydrocarbon reservoirs (where pressure is maintained by water influx), in addition to the capacity reduction caused by capillarity and other local effects, a significant fraction of the pore space will be invaded by water, decreasing the pore space available for CO2 storage, A variety of regional and global estimates of storage capacity in oil and gas fields have been made. Regional and national assessments use a ‘bottom-up’ approach that is based on field reserves data from each area’s existing and discovered oil and gas fields. Although the methodologies used may differ, there is a higher level of confidence in these than the global estimates, for the reasons outlined previously. Currently, this type of assessment is available only for northwestern Europe, United States, Canada and Australia. In Europe, there have been three bottom-up attempts to estimate the CO2 storage capacity of oil and gas reservoirs covering parts of Europe, but comprising most of Europe’s storage capacity since they include the North Sea (Holloway, 1996; Wildenborg et al., 2005b). The methodology used in all three studies was based on the assumption that the total reservoir volume of hydrocarbons could be replaced by CO2. The operators’ estimate of ‘ultimately recoverable reserves’ (URR) was used for each field where available or was estimated. The underground volume occupied by the URR and the amount of CO2 that could be stored in that space under reservoir conditions was then calculated. Undiscovered reserves were excluded. For Canada, the assumption was that table 5.2 Storage capacity for several geological storage options. The storage capacity includes storage options that are not economical. Reservoir type Lower estimate of storage capacity (GtCO2) Upper estimate of storage capacity (GtCO2) Oil and gas fields 675a 900a Unminable coal seams (ECBM) 3-15 200 Deep saline formations 1000 Uncertain, but possibly 104 a These numbers would increase by 25% if “undiscovered” oil and gas fields were included in this assessment.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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