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224 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage storage in coal formations has not yet been made. Normally, commercial CBM reservoirs are shallower than 1500 m, whereas coal mining in Europe and elsewhere has reached depths of 1000 m. Because CO2 should not be stored in coals that could be potentially mined, there is a relatively narrow depth window for CO2 storage. Results for the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin show that, while the total capacity of oil and gas reservoirs in the basin is several Gtonnes of CO2, the capacity of underlying deep saline formations is two to three orders of magnitude higher. Most major CO2 emitters have potential storage sites relatively close by, with the notable exception of the oil sands plants in northeastern Alberta (current CO2 emissions of about 20 MtCO2 yr-1). Assuming that bituminous coals can adsorb twice as much CO2 as methane, a preliminary analysis of the theoretical CO2 storage potential for ECBM recovery projects suggests that approximately 60–200 GtCO2 could be stored worldwide in bituminous coal seams (IEA-GHG, 1998). More recent estimates for North America range from 60 to 90 GtCO2 (Reeves, 2003b; Dooley et al., 2005), by including sub-bituminous coals and lignites. Technical and economic considerations suggest a practical storage potential of approximately 7 GtCO2 for bituminous coals (Gale and Freund, 2001; Gale, 2004). Assuming that CO2 would not be stored in coal seams without recovering the CBM, a storage capacity of 3–15 GtCO2 is calculated, for a US annual production of CBM in 2003 of approximately 0.04 trillion m3 and projected global production levels of 0.20 trillion m3 in the future. This calculation assumes that 0.1 GtCO2 can be stored for every Tcf of produced CBM (3.53 GtCO2 for every trillion m3) and compares well to Gale (2004). In Australia, a portfolio approach was undertaken for the continent to identify a range of geological storage sites (Rigg et al., 2001; Bradshaw et al., 2002). The initial assessment screened 300 sedimentary basins down to 48 basins and 65 areas. Methodology was developed for ranking storage sites (technical and economic risks) and proximity of large CO2 emission sites. Region-wide solutions were sought, incorporating an economic model to assess full project economics over 20 to 30 years, including costs of transport, storage, monitoring and Monte Carlo analysis. The study produced three storage estimates: • Total capacity of 740 GtCO2, equivalent to 1600 years 5.3.8 Matching of CO2 sources and geological storage sites Matching of CO2 sources with geological storage sites requires detailed assessment of source quality and quantity, transport and economic and environmental factors. If the storage site is far from CO2 sources or is associated with a high level of technical uncertainty, then its storage potential may never be realized. 5.3.8.1 Regional studies Matching sources of CO2 to potential storage sites, taking into account projections for future socio-economic development, will be particularly important for some of the rapidly developing economies. Assessment of sources and storage sites, together with numerical simulations, emissions mapping and identification of transport routes, has been undertaken for a number of regions in Europe (Holloway, 1996; Larsen et al., 2005). In Japan, studies have modelled and optimized the linkages between 20 onshore emission regions and 20 offshore storage regions, including both ocean storage and geological storage (Akimoto et al., 2003). Preliminary studies have also begun in India (Garg et al., 2005) and Argentina (Amadeo et al., 2005). For the United States, a study that used a Geographic Information System (GIS) and a broad-based economic analysis (Dooley et al., 2005) shows that about two-thirds of power stations are adjacent to potential geological storage locations, but a number would require transportation of hundreds of kilometres. stationary emissions, determined by matching sources with the closest viable storage sites and assuming economic incentives for storage; Studies of Canadian sedimentary basins that include descriptions of the type of data and flow diagrams of the assessment process have been carried out by Bachu (2003). The following factors should be considered when selecting CO2 storage sites and matching them with CO2 sources (Winter and Bergman, 1993; Bergman et al., 1997; Kovscek, 2002): volume, purity and rate of the CO2 stream; suitability of the storage sites, including the seal; proximity of the source and storage sites; infrastructure for the capture and delivery of CO2; existence of a large number of storage sites to allow diversification; known or undiscovered energy, mineral or groundwater resources that might be compromised; existing wells and infrastructure; viability and safety of the storage site; injection strategies and, in the case of EOR and ECBM, production strategies, which together affect the number of wells and their spacing; terrain and right of way; location of population centres; local expertise; and overall costs and economics. of current emissions, but with no economic barriers considered; • ‘Realistic’ capacity of 100–115 MtCO2 yr-1 or 50% of annual • ‘Cost curve’ capacity of 20–180 MtCO2 yr-1, with increasing storage capacity depending on future CO2 values. 5.3.8.2 Methodology and assessment criteria Although some commonality exists in the various approaches for capacity assessment, each study is influenced by the available data and resources, the aims of the respective study and whether local or whole-region solutions are being sought. The next level of analysis covers regional aspects and detail at the prospect or project level, including screening and selection of potential CO2 storage sites on the basis of technical, environmental, safety and economic criteria. Finally, integration and analysis of various scenarios can lead to identification of potential storage sites that should then become targets of detailed engineering and economic studies. Although technical suitability criteria are initial indicators for identifying potential CO2 storage sites, once the bestPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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