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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 225 candidates have been selected, further considerations will be controlled by economic, safety and environmental aspects. These criteria must be assessed for the anticipated lifetime of the operation, to ascertain whether storage capacity can match supply volume and whether injection rates can match the supply rate. Other issues might include whether CO2 sources and storage sites are matched on a one-to-one basis or whether a collection and distribution system is implemented, to form an integrated industrial system. Such deliberations affect cost outcomes, as will the supply rates, through economies of scale. Early opportunities for source-storage matching could involve sites where an economic benefit might accrue through the enhanced production of oil or gas (Holtz et al., 2001; van Bergen et al., 2003b). 5.4.1.1 Data types Assigning technical risks is important for matching of CO2 sources and storage sites, for five risk factors: storage capacity, injectivity, containment, site and natural resources (Bradshaw et al., 2002, 2003). These screening criteria introduce reality checks to large storage-capacity estimates and indicate which regions to concentrate upon in future detailed studies. The use of ‘cost curve’ capacity introduces another level of sophistication that helps in identifying how sensitive any storage capacity estimate is to the cost of CO2. Combining the technical criteria into an economic assessment reveals that costs are quite project-specific. The storage site and its surroundings need to be characterized in terms of geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry and geomechanics (structural geology and deformation in response to stress changes). The greatest emphasis will be placed on the reservoir and its sealing horizons. However, the strata above the storage formation and caprock also need to be assessed because if CO2 leaked it would migrate through them (Haidl et al., 2005). Documentation of the characteristics of any particular storage site will rely on data that have been obtained directly from the reservoir, such as core and fluids produced from wells at or near the proposed storage site, pressure transient tests conducted to test seal efficiency and indirect remote sensing measurements such as seismic reflection data and regional hydrodynamic pressure gradients. Integration of all of the different types of data is needed to develop a reliable model that can be used to assess whether a site is suitable for CO2 storage. 5.4 Characterization and performance prediction for identified sites Key goals for geological CO2 storage site characterization are to assess how much CO2 can be stored at a potential storage site and to demonstrate that the site is capable of meeting required storage performance criteria (Figure 5.19). Site characterization requires the collection of the wide variety of geological data that are needed to achieve these goals. Much of the data will necessarily be site-specific. Most data will be integrated into geological models that will be used to simulate and predict the performance of the site. These and related issues are considered below. 5.4.1 Characterization of identified sites Storage site requirements depend greatly upon the trapping mechanism and the geological medium in which storage is proposed (e.g., deep saline formation, depleted oil or gas field or coal seam). Data availability and quality vary greatly between each of these options (Table 5.3). In many cases, oil and gas fields will be better characterized than deep saline formations because a relevant data set was collected during hydrocarbon exploration and production. However, this may not always be the case. There are many examples of deep saline formations whose character and performance for CO2 storage can be predicted reliably over a large area (Chadwick et al., 2003; Bradshaw et al., 2003). During the site-selection process that may follow an initial screening, detailed reservoir simulation (Section 5.4.2 will be necessary to meaningfully assess a potential storage site. A range of geophysical, geological, hydrogeological and geomechanical information is required to perform the modelling associated with a reservoir simulation. This information must be built into a three-dimensional geological model, populated with known and extrapolated data at an appropriate scale. Examples of the basic types of data and products that may be useful are listed in Table 5.3. Financial constraints may limit the types of data that can be collected as part of the site characterization and selection process. Today, no standard methodology prescribes how a site must be characterized. Instead, selections about site characterization data will be made on a site-specific basis, choosing those data sets that will be most valuable in the particular geological setting. However, some data sets are likely to be selected for every case. Geological site description from wellbores and outcrops are needed to characterize the storage formation and seal properties. Seismic surveys are needed to define the subsurface geological structure and identify faults or fractures that could create leakage pathways. Formation pressure measurements are needed to map the rate and direction of groundwater flow. Water quality samples are needed to demonstrate the isolation between deep and shallow groundwater. 5.4.1.2 Assessment of stratigraphic factors affecting site integrity Caprocks or seals are the permeability barriers (mostly vertical but sometimes lateral) that prevent or impede migration of CO2 from the injection site. The integrity of a seal depends on spatial distribution and physical properties. Ideally, a sealing rock unit should be regional in nature and uniform in lithology, especially at its base. Where there are lateral changes in the basal units of a seal rock, the chance of migration out of the primary reservoir into higher intervals increases. However, if the seal rock is uniform, regionally extensive and thick, then the main issues will be the physical rock strength, any natural or anthropomorphic penetrations (faults, fractures and wells) andPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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