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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 241 5.6.6 Monitoring network design 5.6.7 Long-term stewardship monitoring There are currently no standard protocols or established network designs for monitoring leakage of CO2. Monitoring network design will depend on the objectives and requirements of the monitoring programme, which will be determined by regulatory requirements and perceived risks posed by the site (Chalaturnyk and Gunter, 2005). For example, current monitoring for EOR is designed to assess the sweep efficiency of the solvent flood and to deal with health and safety issues. In this regard, the monitoring designed for the Weyburn Project uses seismic surveys to determine the lateral migration of CO2 over time. This is compared with the simulations undertaken to design the operational practices of the CO2 flood. For health and safety, the programme is designed to test groundwater for contamination and to monitor for gas buildup in working areas of the field to ensure worker safety. The surface procedure also uses pressure monitoring to ensure that the fracture pressure of the formation is not exceeded (Chalaturnyk and Gunter, 2005). The purpose of long-term monitoring is to identify movement of CO2 that may lead to releases that could impact long-term storage security and safety, as well as trigger the need for remedial action. Long-term monitoring can be accomplished with the same suite of monitoring technologies used during the injection phase. However, at the present time, there are no established protocols for the kind of monitoring that will be required, by whom, for how long and with what purpose. Geological storage of CO2 may persist over many millions of years. The long duration of storage raises some questions about long-term monitoring – an issue that is also addressed in Section 5.8. The Weyburn Project is designed to assess the integrity of an oil reservoir for long-term storage of CO2 (Wilson and Monea, 2005). In this regard, the demonstrated ability of seismic surveys to measure migration of CO2 within the formation is important, but in the long term it may be more important to detect CO2 that has leaked out of the storage reservoir. In this case, the monitoring programme should be designed to achieve the resolution and sensitivity needed to detect CO2 that has leaked out of the reservoir and is migrating vertically. The use of geochemical monitoring will determine the rate of dissolution of the CO2 into fluids and the capacity of the minerals within the reservoir to react with the CO2 and permanently store it. For identification of potential CO2 leaks, monitoring includes soil gas and groundwater surveys. The soil gas surveys use a grid pattern superimposed on the field to evaluate any change in gas chemistry. Because grid patterns may miss narrow, linear anomalies, the study also looks at the pattern of linear anomalies on the surface that may reflect deeper fault and fracture systems, which could become natural migration pathways. Several studies have attempted to address these issues. Keith and Wilson (2002) have proposed that governments assume responsibility for monitoring after the active phase of the storage project is over, as long as all regulatory requirements have been met during operation. This study did not, however, specify long- term requirements for monitoring. Though perhaps somewhat impractical in terms of implementation, White et al. (2003) suggested that monitoring might be required for thousands of years. An alternative point of view is presented by Chow et al. (2003) and Benson et al. (2004), who suggest that once it has been demonstrated that the plume of CO2 is no longer moving, further monitoring should not be required. The rationale for this point of view is that long-term monitoring provides little value if the plume is no longer migrating or the cessation of migration can be accurately predicted and verified by a combination of modelling and short- to mid-term monitoring. Current projects, in particular Sleipner and Weyburn, are testing a variety of techniques to determine those that are most effective and least costly. In Western Canada, acid-gas injection wells use pressure monitoring and set maximum wellhead injection pressures to ensure that reservoir fracture pressures are not exceeded. No subsurface monitoring is currently required for these projects. Chalaturnyk and Gunter (2005) suggest that an effectively designed monitoring programme should allow decisions to be made in the future that are based on ongoing interpretation of the data. The data from the programme should also provide the information necessary to decrease uncertainties over time or increase monitoring demand if things develop unexpectedly. The corollary to this is that unexpected changes may result in the requirement of increased monitoring until new uncertainties are resolved. If and when long-term monitoring is required, cost-effective, easily deployed methods for monitoring will be preferred. Methods that do not require wells that penetrate the plume will be desirable, because they will not increase the risk of leakage up the monitoring well itself. Technologies are available today, such as 3D seismic imaging, that can provide satisfactory images of CO2 plume location. While seismic surveys are perceived to be costly, a recent study by Benson et al. (2004) suggests that this may be a misconception and indicates that monitoring costs on a discounted basis (10% discount rate) are likely to be no higher than 0.10 US$/tCO2 stored. However, seismic imaging has its limitations, as is evidenced by continued drilling of non-productive hydrocarbon wells, but confidence in its ability to meet most, but not all, of the needs of monitoring CO2 storage projects is growing. Less expensive and more passive alternatives that could be deployed remotely, such as satellite- based systems, may be desirable, but are not currently able to track underground migration. However, if CO2 has seeped to the surface, associated vegetative stress can be detected readily in some ecosystems (Martini and Silver, 2002). Until long-term monitoring requirements are established (Stenhouse et al., 2005), it is not possible to evaluate which technology or combination of technologies for monitoring will be needed or desired. However, today’s technology could be deployed to continue monitoring the location of the CO2 plume over very long time periods with sufficient accuracy to assessPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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