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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 243 • Through anthropomorphic pathways, such as poorly completed and/or abandoned pre-existing wells. into the water column. When CO2 dissolves, biological impacts to ocean bottom and marine organisms will be of concern. For those sites where separate-phase CO2 reaches the ocean surface, hazards to offshore platform workers may be of concern for very large and sudden release rates. For onshore storage sites, CO2 that has leaked may reach the water table and migrate into the overlying vadose zone. This occurrence would likely include CO2 contact with drinking- water aquifers. Depending on the mineral composition of the rock matrix within the groundwater aquifer or vadose zone, the reaction of CO2 with the rock matrix could release contaminants. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has witnessed problems with projects designed to replenish groundwater with rainfall wherein mineralized (fixed) contaminants were inadvertently mobilized in concentrations sufficient to cause undesirable contamination. Once through the vadose zone, escaping CO2 reaches the surface layer of the atmosphere and the surface environment, where humans and other animals can be exposed to it. Carbon dioxide dispersion and mixing result from surface winds and associated turbulence and eddies. As a result, CO2 concentrations diminish rapidly with elevation, meaning that ground-dwelling animals are more likely to be affected by exposure than are humans (Oldenburg and Unger, 2004). Calm conditions and local topography capable of containing the dense gas will tend to prevent mixing. But such conditions are the exception and in general, the surface layer can be counted on to strongly dilute seeping CO2. Nevertheless, potential concerns related to buildup of CO2 concentrations on calm days must be carefully considered in any risk assessment of a CO2 storage site. Additionally, high subsurface CO2 concentrations may accumulate in basements, subsurface vaults and other subsurface infrastructures where humans may be exposed to risk. The vadose zone is only partly saturated with water; the rest of the pore space is filled with soil gas (air). Because it is heavier than air, CO2 will displace ambient soil gas, leading to concentrations that locally may potentially approach 100% in parts of the vadose zone, even for small leakage fluxes. The dissipating effects of seepage into the surface layer are controlled mostly by pressure-driven flow and diffusion (Oldenburg and Unger, 2003). These occur predominantly in most shallow parts of the vadose zone, leaving the deeper part of the vadose zone potentially subject to accumulation of leaking CO2. The processes of CO2 migration in the vadose zone can be modelled, subject to limitations in the characterization of actual complex vadose zone and CO2 leakage scenarios. Carbon dioxide injected into coal seams can escape only if it is in free phase (i.e., not adsorbed onto the coal) via the following pathways (Wo and Liang 2005; Wo et al. 2005): flow into surrounding strata during injection when high pressures are used to inject CO2 into low-permeability coal, either where the cleat system reaches the top of the seam or via hydrofractures induced to improve the contact between the cleat system and CBM production wells; through faults or other natural pathways intersecting the coal seam; via poorly abandoned coal or CBM exploration wells; and through anthropomorphic pathways such For storage sites that are offshore, CO2 that has leaked may reach the ocean bottom sediments and then, if lighter than the surrounding water, migrate up through the water column until it reaches the atmosphere. Depending upon the leakage rate, it may either remain as a separate phase or completely dissolve Figure 5.25 Some potential escape routes for CO2 injected into saline formations.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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