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244 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage as coal mines or mining-induced subsidence cracks. In general, however, CO2 retained by sorption onto coal will remain confined to the seam even without caprocks, unless the pressure in the coal seam is reduced (e.g., by mining). Changes in pressure and/or temperature lead to changes in the maximum gas content. If the pressure drops markedly, any excess CO2 the metal casing (Figure 5.26d), deterioration of the cement in the annulus (Figure 5.26e) and leakage in the annular region between the formation and the cement (Figure 5.26f). The potential for long-term degradation of cement and metal casing in the presence of CO2 is a topic of extensive investigations at this time (e.g., Scherer et al., 2005). may desorb from the coal and flow freely through cleats. Injection wells and abandoned wells have been identified as one of the most probable leakage pathways for CO2 storage projects (Gasda et al., 2004; Benson, 2005). When a well is drilled, a continuous, open conduit is created between the land surface and the deep subsurface. If, at the time of drilling, the operator decides that the target formation does not look sufficiently productive, then the well is abandoned as a ‘dry hole’, in accordance with proper regulatory guidelines. Current guidelines typically require filling sections of the hole with The risk of leakage through abandoned wells is proportional to the number of wells intersected by the CO2 plume, their depth and the abandonment method used. For mature sedimentary basins, the number of wells in proximity to a possible injection well can be large, on the order of many hundreds. For example, in the Alberta Basin in western Canada, more than 350,000 wells have been drilled. Currently, drilling continues at the rate of approximately 20,000 wells per year. The wells are distributed spatially in clusters, with densities that average around four wells per km2 (Gasda et al., 2004). Worldwide well densities are provided in Figure 5.27 and illustrate that many areas have much lower well density. Nevertheless, the data provided in Figure 5.27 illustrate an important point made in Section 5.3 – namely that storage security in mature oil and gas provinces may be compromised if a large number of wells penetrate the caprocks. Steps need to be taken to address this potential risk. cement (Section 5.5 and Figure 5.21). Drilling and completion of a well involve not only creation of a hole in the Earth, but also the introduction of engineered materials into the subsurface, such as well cements and well casing. The overall effect of well drilling is replacement of small but potentially significant cylindrical volumes of rock, including low-permeability caprock, with anthropomorphic materials that have properties different from those of the original materials. A number of possible leakage pathways can occur along abandoned wells, as illustrated in Figure 5.26 (Gasda et al., 2004). These include leakage between the cement and the outside of the casing (Figure 5.26a), between the cement and the inside of the metal casing (Figure 5.26b), within the cement plug itself (Figure 5.26c), through deterioration (corrosion) of Figure 5.26 Possible leakage pathways in an abandoned well: (a) and (b) between casing and cement wall and plug, respectively; (c) through cement plugs; (d) through casing; (e) through cement wall; and (f) between the cement wall and rock (after Gasda et al., 2004). 5.7.3 Probability of release from geological storage sites Storage sites will presumably be designed to confine all injected CO2 for geological time scales. Nevertheless, experience with engineered systems suggest a small fraction of operational storage sites may release CO2 to the atmosphere. No existing studies systematically estimate the probability and magnitude of release across a sample of credible geological storage systems. In the absence of such studies, this section synthesizes the lines of evidence that enable rough quantitative estimates of achievable fractions retained in storage. Five kinds of evidence are relevant to assessing storage effectiveness: • Data from natural systems, including trapped accumulations of natural gas and CO2, as well as oil; • Data from engineered systems, including natural gas storage, gas re-injection for pressure support, CO2 or miscible hydrocarbon EOR, disposal of acid gases and disposal of other fluids; • Fundamental physical, chemical and mechanical processes regarding the fate and transport of CO2 in the subsurface; • Results from numerical models of CO2 transport; • Results from current geological storage projects. 5.7.3.1 Natural systems Natural systems allow inferences about the quality and quantity of geological formations that could be used to store CO2. The widespread presence of oil, gas and CO2 trapped in formations for many millions of years implies that within sedimentary basins, impermeable formations (caprocks) of sufficient quality to confine CO2 for geological time periods are present. For example, the about 200 MtCO2 trapped in the Pisgah Anticline, northeast of the Jackson Dome (Mississippi), is thought to have been generated in Late Cretaceous times, more than 65 millionPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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