PDF Publication Title:
Text from PDF Page: 260
248 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage geomechanical stress fields that reach far beyond the volume occupied by the injected fluid. Brines displaced from deep formations by injected CO2 can potentially migrate or leak through fractures or defective wells to shallow aquifers and contaminate shallower drinking water formations by increasing their salinity. In the worst case, infiltration of saline water into groundwater or into the shallow subsurface could impact wildlife habitat, restrict or eliminate agricultural use of land and pollute surface waters. of Fe(III)-reducing communities (Onstott, 2005). From an operational perspective, creation of biofilms may reduce the effective permeability of the formation. As is the case for induced seismicity, the experience with injection of different fluids provides an empirical basis for assessing the likelihood that groundwater contamination will occur by brine displacement. As discussed in Section 5.5 and shown in Figure 5.22, the current site-specific injection rates of fluids into the deep subsurface are roughly comparable to the rates at which CO2 would be injected if geological storage were adopted for storage of CO2 from large-scale power plants. Contamination of groundwater by brines displaced from injection wells is rare and it is therefore expected that contamination arising from large-scale CO2 storage activities would also be rare. Density differences between CO2 and other fluids with which we have extensive experience do not compromise this conclusion, because brine displacement is driven primarily by the pressure/hydraulic head differential of the injected CO2, not by buoyancy forces. Should CO2 leak from the storage formation and find its way to the surface, it will enter a much more biologically active area. While elevated CO2 concentrations in ambient air can accelerate plant growth, such fertilization will generally be overwhelmed by the detrimental effects of elevated CO2 in soils, because CO2 fluxes large enough to significantly increase concentrations in the free air will typically be associated with much higher CO2 concentrations in soils. The effects of elevated CO2 concentrations would be mediated by several factors: the type and density of vegetation; the exposure to other environmental stresses; the prevailing environmental conditions like wind speed and rainfall; the presence of low-lying areas; and the density of nearby animal populations. 5.7.4.3 Hazards to terrestrial and marine ecosystems One example of plant die-off occurred at Mammoth Mountain, California, USA, where a resurgence of volcanic activity resulted in high CO2 fluxes. In 1989, a series of small earthquakes occurred near Mammoth Mountain. A year later, 4 ha of pine trees were discovered to be losing their needles and by 1997, the area of dead and dying trees had expanded to 40 ha (Farrar et al., 1999). Soil CO2 levels above 10–20% inhibit root development and decrease water and nutrient uptake; soil oil-gas testing at Mammoth Mountain in 1994 discovered soil gas readings of up to 95% CO2 by volume. Total CO2 flux in the affected areas averaged about 530 t day–1 in 1996. Measurements in 2001 showed soil CO2 levels of 15–90%, with flux rates at the largest affected area (Horseshoe Lake) averaging 90–100 tCO2 day–1 (Gerlach et al., 1999; Rogie et al., 2001). A study of the impact of elevated CO2 on soils found there was a lower pH and higher moisture content in summer. Wells in the high CO2 area showed higher levels of silicon, aluminum, magnesium and iron, consistent with enhanced weathering of the soils. Tree-ring data show that CO2 releases have occurred prior to 1990 (Cook et al., 2001). Data from airborne remote sensing are now being used to map tree health and measure anomalous CO2 levels, which may help determine how CO2 affects forest ecosystems (Martini and Silver, 2002). Stored CO2 and any accompanying substances, may affect the flora and fauna with which it comes into contact. Impacts might be expected on microbes in the deep subsurface and on plants and animals in shallower soils and at the surface. The remainder of this discussion focuses only on the hazards where exposures to CO2 do occur. As discussed in Section 5.7.3, the probability of leakage is low. Nevertheless, it is important to understand the hazards should exposures occur. In the last three decades, microbes dubbed ‘extremophiles’, living in environments where life was previously considered impossible, have been identified in many underground habitats. These microorganisms have limited nutrient supply and exhibit very low metabolic rates (D’Hondt et al., 2002). Recent studies have described populations in deep saline formations (Haveman and Pedersen, 2001), oil and gas reservoirs (Orphan et al., 2000) and sediments up to 850 m below the sea floor (Parkes et al., 2000). The mass of subsurface microbes may well exceed the mass of biota on the Earth’s surface (Whitman et al., 2001). The working assumption may be that unless there are conditions preventing it, microbes can be found everywhere at the depths being considered for CO2 storage and consequently CO2 storage sites may generally contain microbes that could be affected by injected CO2. There is no evidence of any terrestrial impact from current CO2 storage projects. Likewise, there is no evidence from EOR projects that indicate impacts to vegetation such as those described above. However, no systematic studies have occurred to look for terrestrial impacts from current EOR projects. The effect of CO2 on subsurface microbial populations is not well studied. A low-pH, high-CO2 environment may favour some species and harm others. In strongly reducing environments, the injection of CO2 may stimulate microbial communities that would reduce the CO2 to CH4; while in other reservoirs, CO2 injection could cause a short-term stimulation Natural CO2 seepage in volcanic regions, therefore, provides examples of possible impacts from leaky CO2 storage, although The main characteristic of long-term elevated CO2 zones at the surface is the lack of vegetation. New CO2 releases into vegetated areas cause noticeable die-off. In those areas where significant impacts to vegetation have occurred, CO2 makes up about 20–95% of the soil gas, whereas normal soil gas usually contains about 0.2–4% CO2. Carbon dioxide concentrations above 5% may be dangerous for vegetation and as concentration approach 20%, CO2 becomes phytotoxic. Carbon dioxide can cause death of plants through ‘root anoxia’, together with low oxygen concentration (Leone et al., 1977; Flower et al., 1981).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
PDF Search Title:
CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGEOriginal File Name Searched:
srccs_wholereport.pdfDIY PDF Search: Google It | Yahoo | Bing
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
IT XR Project Redstone NFT Available for Sale: NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. Can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Turbine IT XR Project Redstone Design: NFT for sale... NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Includes all rights to this turbine design, including license for Fluid Handling Block I and II for the turbine assembly and housing. The NFT includes the blueprints (cad/cam), revenue streams, and all future development of the IT XR Project Redstone... More Info
Infinity Turbine ROT Radial Outflow Turbine 24 Design and Worldwide Rights: NFT for sale... NFT for the ROT 24 energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. This design can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. You may manufacture the unit, or get the revenues from its sale from Infinity Turbine. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Supercritical CO2 10 Liter Extractor Design and Worldwide Rights: The Infinity Supercritical 10L CO2 extractor is for botanical oil extraction, which is rich in terpenes and can produce shelf ready full spectrum oil. With over 5 years of development, this industry leader mature extractor machine has been sold since 2015 and is part of many profitable businesses. The process can also be used for electrowinning, e-waste recycling, and lithium battery recycling, gold mining electronic wastes, precious metals. CO2 can also be used in a reverse fuel cell with nafion to make a gas-to-liquids fuel, such as methanol, ethanol and butanol or ethylene. Supercritical CO2 has also been used for treating nafion to make it more effective catalyst. This NFT is for the purchase of worldwide rights which includes the design. More Info
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
Infinity Turbine Products: Special for this month, any plans are $10,000 for complete Cad/Cam blueprints. License is for one build. Try before you buy a production license. May pay by Bitcoin or other Crypto. Products Page... More Info
CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)