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Chapter 5: Underground geological storage 249 (as mentioned in Section 5.2.3) seeps in volcanic provinces provide a poor analogue to seepage that would occur from CO2 storage sites in sedimentary basins. As described above, CO2 seepage can pose substantial hazards. In the Alban Hills, south of Rome (Italy), for example, 29 cows and 8 sheep were asphyxiated in several separate incidents between September 1999 and October 2001 (Carapezza et al., 2003). The measured CO2fluxwasabout60tday–1of98%CO2andupto2% H2S, creating hazardous levels of each gas in localized areas, particularly in low-wind conditions. The high CO2 and H2S fluxes resulted from a combination of magmatic activity and faulting. such as the drillholes of the German continental deep drilling programme (Shapiro et al., 1997; Zoback and Harjes, 1997) or the Cold Lake Oil Field, Alberta, Canada (Talebi et al., 1998). Deep-well injection of waste fluids may induce earthquakes with moderate local magnitudes (ML), as suggested for the 1967 Denver earthquakes (ML of 5.3; Healy et al., 1968; Wyss and Molnar, 1972) and the 1986–1987 Ohio earthquakes (ML of 4.9; Ahmad and Smith, 1988) in the United States. Seismicity induced by fluid injection is usually assumed to result from increased pore-fluid pressure in the hypocentral region of the seismic event (e.g., Healy et al., 1968; Talebi et al., 1998). Human activities have caused detrimental releases of CO2 from the deep subsurface. In the late 1990s, vegetation died off above an approximately 3-km deep geothermal field being exploited for a 62 MW power plant, in Dixie Valley, Nevada, USA (Bergfeld et al., 2001). A maximum flux of 570 gCO2 m–2 day–1 was measured, as compared to a background level of 7 gCO2 m-2 day–1. By 1999, CO2 flow in the measured area ceased and vegetation began to return. Readily applicable methods exist to assess and control induced fracturing or fault activation (see Section 5.5.3). Several geomechanical methods have been identified for assessing the stability of faults and estimating maximum sustainable pore- fluid pressures for CO2 storage (Streit and Hillis, 2003). Such methods, which require the determination of in situ stresses, fault geometries and relevant rock strengths, are based on brittle failure criteria and have been applied to several study sites for potential CO2 storage (Rigg et al., 2001; Gibson-Poole et al., 2002). The relevance of these natural analogues to leakage from CO2 storage varies. For examples presented here, the fluxes and therefore the risks, are much higher than might be expected from a CO2 storage facility: the annual flow of CO2 at the Mammoth Mountain site is roughly equal to a release rate on the order of 0.2% yr-1 from a storage site containing 100 MtCO2. This corresponds to a fraction retained of 13.5% over 1000 years and, thus, is not representative of a typical storage site. The monitoring of microseismic events, especially in the vicinity of injection wells, can indicate whether pore fluid pressures have locally exceeded the strength of faults, fractures or intact rock. Acoustic transducers that record microseismic events in monitoring wells of CO2 storage sites can be used to provide real-time control to keep injection pressures below the levels that induce seismicity. Together with the modelling techniques mentioned above, monitoring can reduce the chance of damage to top seals and fault seals (at CO2 storage sites) caused by injection-related pore-pressure increases. Seepage from offshore geological storage sites may pose a hazard to benthic environments and organisms as the CO2 moves from deep geological structures through benthic sediments to the ocean. While leaking CO2 might be hazardous to the benthic environment, the seabed and overlying seawater can also provide a barrier, reducing the escape of seeping CO2 to the atmosphere. These hazards are distinctly different from the environmental effects of the dissolved CO2 on aquatic life in the water column, which are discussed in Chapter 6. No studies specifically address the environmental effects of seepage from sub-seabed geological storage sites. Fault activation is primarily dependent on the extent and magnitude of the pore-fluid-pressure perturbations. It is therefore determined more by the quantity and rate than by the kind of fluid injected. Estimates of the risk of inducing significant earthquakes may therefore be based on the diverse and extensive experience with deep-well injection of various aqueous and gaseous streams for disposal and storage. Perhaps the most pertinent experience is the injection of CO2 for EOR; about 30 MtCO2 yr-1 is now injected for EOR worldwide and the cumulative total injected exceeds 0.5 GtCO2, yet there have been no significant seismic effects attributed to CO2-EOR. In addition to CO2, injected fluids include brines associated with oil and gas production (>2 Gt yr–1); Floridan aquifer wastewater (>0.5 Gt yr–1); hazardous wastes (>30 Mt yr–1); and natural gas (>100 Mt yr–1) (Wilson et al., 2003). 5.7.4.4 Induced seismicity Underground injection of CO2 or other fluids into porous rock at pressures substantially higher than formation pressures can induce fracturing and movement along faults (see Section 5.5.4 and Healy et al., 1968; Gibbs et al., 1973; Raleigh et al., 1976; Sminchak et al., 2002; Streit et al., 2005; Wo et al., 2005). Induced fracturing and fault activation may pose two kinds of risks. First, brittle failure and associated microseismicity induced by overpressuring can create or enhance fracture permeability, thus providing pathways for unwanted CO2 migration (Streit and Hillis, 2003). Second, fault activation can, in principle, induce earthquakes large enough to cause damage (e.g., Healy et al., 1968). While few of these cases may precisely mirror the conditions under which CO2 would be injected for storage (the peak pressures in CO2-EOR may, for example, be lower than would be used in formation storage), these quantities compare to or exceed, plausible flows of CO2 into storage. For example, in some cases such as the Rangely Oil Field, USA, current reservoir pressures even exceed the original formation pressure (Raleigh et al., 1976). Thus, they provide a substantial body of empirical data upon which to assess the likelihood of induced seismicity resulting from fluid injection. The fact that only a few Fluid injection into boreholes can induce microseismic activity, as for example at the Rangely Oil Field in Colorado, USA (Gibbs et al., 1973; Raleigh et al., 1976), in test sitesPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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