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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 281 Figure 6.2 Simulated atmospheric CO2 resulting from CO2 release to the atmosphere or injection into the ocean at 3,000 m depth (Kheshgi and Archer, 2004). Emissions follow a logistic trajectory with cumulative emissions of 18,000 GtCO2. Illustrative cases include 100% of emissions released to the atmosphere leading to a peak in concentration, 100% of emissions injected into the ocean, and no emissions (i.e., other mitigation approaches are used). Additional cases include atmospheric emission to year 2050, followed by either 50% to atmosphere and 50% to ocean after 2050 or 50% to atmosphere and 50% by other mitigation approaches after 2050. Ocean injection results in lower peak concentrations than atmospheric release but higher than if other mitigation approaches are used (e.g., renewables or permanent storage). Figure 6.3 Equilibrium partitioning of CO2 between the ocean and atmosphere. On the time scale of millennia, complete mixing of the oceans leads to a partitioning of cumulative CO2 emissions between the oceans and atmosphere with the bulk of emissions eventually residing in the oceans as dissolved inorganic carbon. The ocean partition depends nonlinearly on CO2 concentration according to carbonate chemical equilibrium (Box 6.1) and has limited sensitivity to changes in surface water temperature (shown by the grey area for a range of climate sensitivity of 1.5 to 4.5°C for CO2 doubling) (adapted from Kheshgi et al., 2005; Kheshgi, 2004a). ∆pH evaluated from pCO2 of 275 ppm. This calculation is relevant on the time scale of several centuries, and does not consider changes in ocean alkalinity that increase ocean CO2 uptake over several millennia (Archer et al., 1997). There has been limited experience with handling CO2 in the deep sea that could form a basis for the development of ocean CO2 storage technologies. Before they could be deployed, such technologies would require further development and field testing. Associated with the limited level of development, estimates of the costs of ocean CO2 storage technologies are at a primitive state, however, the costs of the actual dispersal technologies are expected to be low in comparison to the costs of CO2 capture and transport to the deep sea (but still non- negligible; Section 6.9). Proximity to the deep sea is a factor, as the deep oceans are remote to many sources of CO2 (Section 6.4). Ocean storage would require CO2 transport by ship or deep-sea pipelines. Pipelines and drilling platforms, especially in oil and gas applications, are reaching ever-greater depths, yet not on the scale or to the depth relevant for ocean CO2 storage (Chapter 4). No insurmountable technical barrier to storage of CO2 in the oceans is apparent. would depend on which, as of yet undeveloped, ocean storage technology would potentially be deployed, and on environmental impacts to be avoided. Putting CO2 directly into the deep ocean means that the chemical environment of the deep ocean would be altered immediately, and in concepts where release is from a point, change in ocean chemistry would be greater proximate to the release location. Given only rudimentary understanding of deep-sea ecosystems, only a limited and preliminary assessment of potential ecosystem effects can be given (Section 6.7). 6.1.2 Relevant background in physical and chemical oceanography The oceans, atmosphere, and plants and soils are the primary components of the global carbon cycle and actively exchange carbon (Prentice et al., 2001). The oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface with an average depth of 3,800 m and contain roughly 50 times the quantity of carbon currently contained in the atmosphere and roughly 20 times the quantity of carbon currently contained in plants and soils. The ocean contains Technologies exist to monitor deep-sea activities (Section 6.6). Practices for monitoring and verification of ocean storage More carbon dioxide could be stored in the ocean with less of an effect on atmospheric CO2 and fewer adverse effects on the marine environment if the alkalinity of the ocean could be increased, perhaps by dissolving carbonate minerals in sea water. Proposals based on this concept are discussed primarily in Section 6.2. For ocean storage of CO2, issues remain regarding environmental consequences, public acceptance, implications of existing laws, safeguards and practices that would need to be developed, and gaps in our understanding of ocean CO2 storage (Sections 6.7, 6.8, and 6.10).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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