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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 289 the ocean volume has ∆pH of less than –0.3, –0.2, and –0.1 pH units respectively. Caldeira and Wickett (2005) predicted volumes of water undergoing a range of pH changes for several atmospheric emission and carbon stabilization pathways, including pathways in which direct injection of CO2 into the deep ocean was assumed to provide either 10% or 100% of the total atmospheric CO2 mitigation effort needed to stabilize atmospheric CO2 according to the WRE550 pathway. This assumed a CO2 production scenario in which all known fossil- fuel resources were ultimately combusted. Simulations in which ocean injection provided 10% of the total mitigation effort, resulted in significant changes in ocean pH in year 2100 over roughly 1% of the ocean volume (Figure 6.15). By year 2300, injection rates have slowed but previously injected carbon has spread through much of the ocean resulting in an additional 0.1 pH unit reduction in ocean pH over most of the ocean volume compared to WRE550. Long-term storage of carbon dioxide might be more effective if CO2 were stored on the sea floor in liquid or hydrate form below 3000 metres, where CO2 is denser than sea water (Box 6.2; Ohsumi, 1995; Shindo et al., 1995). Liquid carbon dioxide could be introduced at depth to form a lake of CO2 on the sea floor (Ohsumi, 1993). Alternatively, CO2 hydrate could be created in an apparatus designed to produce a hydrate pile or pool on the sea floor (Saji et al., 1992). To date, the concept of CO2 lakes on the sea floor has been investigated only in the laboratory, in small-scale (tens of litres) in-situ experiments and in numerical models. Larger-scale in-situ experiments have not yet been carried out. 6.2.1.6 Behaviour of CO2 lakes on the sea floor CO2 released onto the sea floor deeper than 3 km is denser than surrounding sea water and is expected to fill topographic depressions, accumulating as a lake of CO2 over which a thin hydrate layer would form. This hydrate layer would retard dissolution, but it would not insulate the lake from the overlying water. The hydrate would dissolve into the overlying water (or sink to the bottom of the CO2 lake), but the hydrate layer would be continuously renewed through the formation of new crystals (Mori, 1998). Laboratory experiments (Aya et al., 1995) and small deep ocean experiments (Brewer et al., 1999) show that deep-sea storage of CO2 would lead to CO2 hydrate formation (and subsequent dissolution). Liquid or hydrate deposition of CO2 on the sea floor could increase isolation, however in the absence of a physical barrier the CO2 would dissolve into the overlying water (Mori and Mochizuki, 1998; Haugan and Alendal, 2005). In this aspect, most sea floor deposition proposals can be viewed as a means of ‘time-delayed release’ of CO2 into the ocean. Thus, many issues relevant to sea floor options, especially the far-field behaviour, are discussed in sections relating to CO2 release into the water column (e.g., Section 6.2.1.5). Figure 6.15 Estimated volume of pH perturbations at global scale for hypothetical examples in which injection of CO2 into the ocean interior provides 100% or 10% of the mitigation effort needed to move from a logistic emissions curve cumulatively releasing 18,000 GtCO2 (=5000 GtC) to emissions consistent with atmospheric CO2 stabilization at 550 ppm according to the WRE550 pathway (Wigley et al., 1996). The curves show the simulated fraction of ocean volume with a pH reduction greater than the amount shown on the horizontal axis. For the 10% case, in year 2100, injection rates are high and about1% of the ocean volume has significant pH reductions; in year 2300, injection rates are low, but previously injected CO2 has decreased ocean pH by about 0.1 unit below the value produced by a WRE550 atmospheric CO2 pathway in the absence of CO2 release directly to the ocean (Caldeira and Wickett, 2005). Predictions of the fate of large-scale CO2 lakes rely on numerical simulations because no large-scale field experiments have yet been performed. For a CO2 lake with an initial depth of 50 m, the time of complete dissolution varies from 30 to 400 years depending on the local ocean and sea floor environment. The time to dissolve a CO2 lake depends on its depth, complexPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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