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296 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage relatively dilute initial injection through a series of diffusers or by other means. Dilution would reduce exposure of organisms to very low pH (very high CO2) environments (Section 6.7). to that from creation of a buoyant plume. Aya et al. (2004) have shown that a rapidly sinking plume of CO2 can be formed by release of a slurry combining cold liquid and solid CO2 with a hydrate skin. This would effectively transfer ship released CO2 at shallow ocean depth to the deep ocean without the cost of a long pipe. In all of these schemes the fate of the CO2 is to be dissolved into the ocean, with increased depth of dissolution, and thus increased retention. 6.5.3 Production of a CO2 lake One set of options for releasing CO2 to the ocean involves transporting liquid CO2 from shore to the deep ocean in a pipeline. This would not present any major new problems in design, ‘according to petroleum engineers and naval architects speaking at one of the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme ocean storage workshops’ (Ormerod et al., 2002). The oil industry has been making great advances in undersea offshore technology, with projects routinely working at depths greater than 1000 m. The oil and the gas industry already places pipes on the bottom of the sea in depths down to 1600 m, and design studies have shown 3000 m to be technically feasible (Ormerod et al., 2002). The 1 m diameter pipe would have the capacity to transport 70,000 tCO2 day-1, enough for CO2 captured from 3 GWe of a coal-fired electric power plant (Ormerod et al., 2002). Liro et al. (1992) proposed injecting liquid CO2 at a depth of about 1000 m from a manifold lying near the ocean bottom to form a rising droplet plume. Nihous et al. (2002) proposed injecting liquid CO2 at a depth of below 3000 m from a manifold lying near the ocean bottom and forming a sinking droplet plume. Engineering work would need to be done to assure that, below 500 m depth, hydrates do not form inside the discharged pipe and nozzles, as this could block pipe or nozzle flow. Nakashiki (1997) investigated several different kinds of discharge pipes that could be used from a liquid CO2 tanker to create a CO2 lake on the sea floor. They concluded that a ‘floating discharge pipe’ might be the best option because it is simpler than the alternatives and less likely to be damaged by wind and waves in storm conditions. CO2 could be transported by tanker for release from a stationary platform (Ozaki et al., 1995) or through a towed pipe (Ozaki et al., 2001). In either case, the design of CO2 tankers would be nearly identical to those that are now used to transport liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Cooling would be used, in order to reduce pressure requirements, with design conditions of –55 degrees C and 6 bar pressure (Ormerod et al., 2002). Producing a dispersed initial concentration would diminish the magnitude of the maximum pH excursion. This would probably involve designing for the size of the initial liquid CO2 droplet and the turbulent mixing behind the towed pipe (Tsushima et al., 2002). Diffusers could be designed so that CO2 droplets would dissolve completely before they reach the liquid-gas phase boundary. Aya et al. (2003) proposed creating a slurry of liquid CO2 mixed with dry ice and releasing into the ocean at around 200 to 500 m depth. The dry ice is denser that the surrounding sea water and would cause the slurry to sink. An in situ experiment carried out off the coast of California found that a CO2 slurry and dry ice mass with initial diameter about 8.0 cm sank approximately 50 metres within two minutes before the dry ice melted (Aya et al., 2003). The initial size of CO2 slurry and dry ice is a critical factor making it possible to sink more than 3000 m to the sea floor. To meet performance criteria, the dry ice content would be controlled with a system consisting of a main power engine, a compressor, a condenser, and some pipe systems. CO2 hydrate is about 15% denser than sea water, so it tends to sink, dissolving into sea water over a broad depth horizon (Wannamaker and Adams, 2002). Kajishima et al. (1997) and Saito et al. (2001) investigated a proposal to create a dense CO2-seawater mixture at a depth of between 500 and 1000 m to form a current sinking along the sloping ocean bottom. Another proposal (Tsouris et al., 2004; West et al., 2003) envisions releasing a sinking CO2-hydrate/seawater slurry at between 1000 and 1500 m depth. This sinking plume would dissolve as it sinks, potentially distributing the CO2 over kilometres of vertical distance, and achieving some fraction of the CO2 retained in deep storage despite the initial release into intermediate waters. The production of a hydrate/seawater slurry has been experimentally demonstrated at sea (Tsouris et al., 2004). Tsouris et al. (2004) have carried out a field experiment at 1000 m ocean depth in which rapid mixing of sea water with CO2 in a capillary nozzle to a neutrally buoyant composite paste takes place. This would enhance ocean retention time compared 6.6 Monitoring and verification 6.6.1 Background Monitoring (Figure 6.22) would be done for at least two different purposes: (1) to gain specific information relating to a particular CO2 storage operation and (2) to gain general scientific understanding. A monitoring program should attempt to quantify the mass and distribution of CO2 from each point source and could record related biological and geochemical parameters. These same issues may relate to monitoring of potential leakages from subsea geologic storage, or for verification that such leakage does not occur. Monitoring protocols for submarine sewage disposal for example are already well established, and experience may be drawn from that. 6.6.2 Monitoring amounts and distributions of materials released It appears that there is no serious impediment to verifying plant compliance with likely performance standards for flow through a pipe. Once CO2 is discharged from the pipe then the specific monitoring protocols will depend upon whether the plume is buoyant or sinking. Fixed location injections present fewer 6.6.2.1 Monitoring the near fieldPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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