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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 299 Box 6.4 Relevant background in biological oceanography. Photosynthesis produces organic matter in the ocean almost exclusively in the upper 200 m where there is both light and nutrients (e.g., PO4, NO3, NH4+, Fe). Photosynthesis forms the base of a marine food chain that recycles much of the carbon and nutrients in the upper ocean. Some of this organic matter ultimately sinks to the deep ocean as particles and some of it is mixed into the deep ocean as dissolved organic matter. The flux of organic matter from the surface ocean provides most of the energy and nutrients to support the heterotrophic ecosystems of the deep ocean (Gage and Tyler, 1991). With the exception of the oxygen minimum zone and near volcanic CO2 vents, most organisms living in the deep ocean live in low and more or less constant CO2 levels. At low latitudes, oxygen consumption and CO2 release can produce a zone at around 1000 m depth characterized by low O2 and high CO2 concentrations, known as the ‘oxygen minimum zone’. Bacteria are the primary consumers of organic matter in the deep ocean. They obtain energy predominately by consuming dissolved oxygen in reactions that oxidize organic carbon into CO2. In the oxygen minimum layer, sea water pH may be less than 7.7, roughly 0.5 pH units lower than average pH of natural surface waters (Figure 6.6). At some locations near the sea floor, especially near submarine volcanic CO2 sources, CO2 concentrations can fluctuate greatly. Near deep-sea hydrothermal vents CO2 partial pressures (pCO2, expressed as a ppm fraction of atmospheric pressure, equivalent to μatm) of up to 80,000 ppm have been observed. These are more than 100 times the typical value for deep- sea water. Typically, these vents are associated with fauna that have adapted to these conditions over evolutionary time. For example, tube worms can make use of high CO2 levels for chemosynthetic CO2 fixation in association with symbiotic bacteria (Childress et al., 1993). High CO2 levels (up to a pCO2 of 16,000 ppm; Knoll et al., 1996) have been observed in ocean bottom waters and marine sediments where there are high rates organic matter oxidation and low rates of mixing with the overlying seawater. Under these conditions, high CO2 concentrations are often accompanied by low O2 concentrations. Near the surface at night, respiratory fluxes in some relatively confined rock pools of the intertidal zone can produce high CO2 levels. These patterns suggest that in some environments, organisms have evolved to tolerate relatively wide pH oscillations and/or low pH values. Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on sinking particles of organic carbon made by photosynthesis near the ocean surface settling down through the water. Most species living in the deep sea display very low metabolic rates (Childress, 1995), especially in oxygen minimum layers (Seibel et al., 1997). Organisms living in the deep seawaters have adapted to the energy- limited environment by conserving energy stores and minimizing energy turnover. As a result of energy limitations and cold temperatures found in the deep sea, biological activities tend to be extremely low. For example, respiration rates of rat-tail fish are roughly 0.1% that of their shallow-water relatives. Community respiration declines exponentially with depth along the California margin, however, rapid turnover of large quantities of organic matter has been observed on the ocean floor (Mahaut et al., 1995; Smith and Demopoulos, 2003). Thus, biological activity of some animals living on the deep sea floor can be as great as is found in relatives living on the sea floor in shallow waters. Deep-sea ecosystems may take a long time to recover from disturbances that reduce population size. Organisms have adapted to the energy-limited environment of the deep sea by limiting investment in reproduction, thus most deep-sea species produce few offspring. Deep-sea species tend to invest heavily in each of their eggs, making them large and rich in yolk to provide the offspring with the resources they will need for survival. Due to their low metabolic rates, deep-sea species tend to grow slowly and have much longer lifespans than their upper-ocean cousins. For example, on the deep-sea floor, a bivalve less than 1 cm across can be more than 100 years old (Gage, 1991). This means that populations of deep-sea species will be more greatly affected by the loss of individual larvae than would upper ocean species. Upon disturbance, recolonization and community recovery in the deep ocean follows similar patterns to those in shallow waters, but on much longer time scales (several years compared to weeks or months in shallow waters, Smith and Demopoulos, 2003). The numbers of organisms living on the sea floor per unit area decreases exponentially with depth, probably associated with the diminishing flux of food with depth. On the sea floor of the deepest ocean and of the upper ocean, the fauna can be dominated by a few species. Between 2000 and 3000 m depth ecosystems tend to have high species diversity with a low number of individuals, meaning that each species has a low population size (Snelgrove and Smith, 2002). The fauna living in the water column appear to be less diverse than that on the sea floor, probably due to the relative uniformity of vast volumes of water in the deep ocean.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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