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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 301 table 6.3 Relationships between ∆pH, changes in pCO2, and dissolved inorganic carbon concentration calculated for mean deep-sea conditions. Also shown are volumes of water needed to dilute 1 tCO2 to the specified ∆pH, and the amount of CO2 that, if uniformly distributed throughout the ocean, would produce this ∆pH. pH change ∆pH increase in CO2 partial pressure ∆pCO2 (ppm) increase in dissolved inorganic carbon ∆DIC (μmol kg–1) Seawater volume to dilute 1 tCO2 to ∆pH (m3) GtCO2 to produce ∆pH in entire ocean volume 0 0 0 - - -0.1 150 30 656,000 2000 -0.2 340 70 340,000 3800 -0.3 580 100 232,000 5600 -0.5 1260 160 141,000 9200 -1 5250 400 54,800 24,000 -2 57,800 3,260 6800 190,000 -3 586,000 31,900 700 1,850,000 while increasing the volume of water experiencing a lesser ∆pH. Further examples indicating the spatial extent of ocean chemistry change from added CO2 are represented in Figures 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, and 6.15. Physiological effects of CO2 On evolutionary time scales most extant animal life has adapted to, on average, low ambient CO2 levels. Accordingly, extant animal life may rely on these low pCO2 values and it is unclear to what extent species would be able to adapt to permanently elevated CO2 levels. Exposure to high CO2 levels and extremely acidic water can cause acute mortality, but more limited shifts in CO2, pH, and carbonate levels can be tolerated at least temporarily. Studies of shallow water organisms have identified a variety of physiological mechanisms by which changes in the chemical environment can affect fauna. These mechanisms should also apply to organisms living in the deep ocean. However, knowing physiological mechanisms alone does not enable full assessment of impacts at ecosystem levels. Long-term effects, for intervals greater than the duration of the reproduction cycle or the lifespan of an individual, may be overlooked, yet may still drastically change an ecosystem. 6.7.2.2 Effects of CO2 versus pH Species living in the open ocean are exposed to low and relatively constant CO2 levels, and thus may be sensitive to CO2 exposure. In contrast, species dwelling in marine sediments, especially in the intertidal zone, are regularly exposed to CO2 fluctuations and thus may be better adapted to high and variable CO2 concentrations. Physiological mechanisms associated with CO2 adaptation have been studied mostly in these organisms. They respond to elevated CO2 concentrations by transiently diminishing energy turnover. However, such responses are likely become detrimental during long-term exposure, as reduced metabolism involves a reduction in physical activity, growth, and reproduction. Overall, marine invertebrates appear more sensitive than fish (Pörtner et al., 2005). CO2 effects have been studied primarily in fish and invertebrates from shallow waters, although some of these cover wide depth ranges down to below 2000 m or are adapted to cold temperatures (e.g., Langenbuch and Pörtner, 2003, 2004). Some in situ biological experiments used CO2 in the deep ocean (See Box 6.6). CO2 added to sea water will change the hydrogen ion concentration (pH). This change in hydrogen ion concentration may affect marine life through mechanisms that do not directly involve CO2. Studies of effects of lowered pH (without concomitant CO2 accumulation) on aquatic organisms have a 6.7.2 6.7.2.1 animals Hypercapnia is the condition attained when an organism (or part thereof) is surrounded by high concentrations of CO2. Under these conditions, CO2 enters the organisms by diffusion across body and especially respiratory surfaces and equilibrates with all body compartments. This internal accumulation of CO2 will be responsible for most of the effects observed in animals (reviewed by Pörtner and Reipschläger, 1996, Seibel and Walsh, 2001, Ishimatsu et al., 2004, 2005; Pörtner et al., 2004, 2005). Respiratory distress, narcosis, and mortality are the most obvious short-term effects at high CO2 concentrations, but lower concentrations may have important effects on longer time scales. The CO2 level to which an organism has acclimated may affect its acute critical CO2 thresholds, however, the capacity to acclimate has not been investigated to date. Typically, tolerance limits to CO2 have been characterized by changes in ocean pH or pCO2 (see Shirayama, 1995; Auerbach et al., 1997). However, changes in molecular CO2, carbonate, and bicarbonate concentrations in ambient water and body fluids may each have specific effects on marine organisms (Pörtner and Reipschläger, 1996). In water breathers like fish or invertebrates CO2 entry causes immediate disturbances in acid-base status, which need to be compensated for by ion exchange mechanisms. The acute effect of CO2 accumulation is more severe than that of the reduction in pH or carbonate- ion concentrations. For example, fish larvae are more sensitive to low pH and high CO2 than low pH and low CO2 (achieved by addition of HCl with pCO2 levels kept low by aeration; Ishimatsu et al., 2004). Effects of CO2 on cold-blooded water breathingPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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