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302 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Box 6.6 In-situ observations of the response of deep-sea biota to added CO2. In-situ experiments concerning the sensitivity of deep and shallow-living marine biota to elevated carbon dioxide levels have been limited in scope. Significant CO2 effects have been observed in experiments, consistent with the mechanisms of CO2 action reported in Section 6.7.2. Some animals avoid CO2 plumes, others do not. with the most intense exposure to dissolution plumes when the current was flowing directly towards the study animals. During other tidal periods there was often no pH reduction, increasing the difficulty of interpreting these experiments. Studies evaluating the behaviour and survival of deep- sea animals exposed to liquid CO2 or to CO2-rich sea water have been performed on the continental slope and rise off California. Experiments in which about 20–70 kg of liquid CO2 were released in small corrals on the sea floor at 3600 m depth were used to measure the response of animals that came in contact with liquid CO2, and to the dissolution plume emanating from CO2 pools (Barry et al., 2004). Larger bottom-living animals collected from the sea floor were held in cages and placed at distances of 1–50 m from CO2 pools. In addition, organisms living in the sediment were collected at a range of distances from CO2 pools, both before CO2 release and 1–3 months later. Three controlled in-situ experiments were carried out at 2000 m in the Kumano Trough using a specially designed chamber (Figure 6.24; Ishida et al. 2005) to address the impact of 5,000 and 20,000 ppm rises in pCO2 (with resulting pHs of 6.8 and 6.3) on the abundance and diversity of bacteria and of small animals (nano- and meiobenthos). Significant impacts of elevated pCO2 on meiobenthic organisms could not be found except for one case where the abundance of foraminifera decreased significantly within 3 days at 20,000 ppm. The abundance of nanobenthos decreased significantly in most cases, whereas the abundance of bacteria increased at 20,000 ppm (Figure 6.25). The response of animals to direct contact with liquid CO2 varied among species. Sea cucumbers (holothurians like Scotoplanes sp.) and brittle stars (ophiuroids, unidentified species) died immediately after contact with liquid CO2 (Barry et al., 2005). A few individuals (<5 individuals) of deep-sea fish (grenadiers, Coryphaenoides armatus) that approached CO2 pools and made contact with the fluid turned immediately and swam out of view. Other deep-sea experiments (Tamburri et al. 2000) evaluating the behavioural response of animals to a saturated CO2 / sea water solution have shown that some scavenger species (deep-sea hagfish) will not avoid acidic, CO2-rich seawater if chemical cues from decaying bait are also present. In fact, hagfish would maintain contact with the CO2-rich / bait-scented plume long enough to be apparently ‘narcotized’ by the CO2. In-situ studies of short-term effects of elevated CO2 concentrations on deep-sea megafauna have been conducted using CO2 released naturally from the Loihi Seamount (Hawaii) at depths of 1200 to 1300 m (Vetter and Smith, 2005). A submersible was used to manipulate baited traps and bait parcels in Loihi’s CO2 plume to explore the effects of elevated CO2 on typical deep-sea scavengers. Vent-specialist shrimp were attracted to the bait and proved to be pre-adapted to the high CO2 levels found close to volcanic vents. Free swimming, amphipods, synaphobranchid eels, and hexanchid sharks avoided open bait parcels placed in the CO2 plumes Survival rates of abyssal animals exposed to CO2 dissolution plumes in these experiments varied with the range of pH perturbation and the distance from the CO2 source. Abyssal animals held in cages or inhabiting sediments that were near (<1 m) CO2 pools, and which were exposed episodically to large pH reduction (1–1.5 pH units) experienced high rates of mortality (>80%). Animals affected included small (meio- )fauna (flagellates, amoebae, nematodes; Barry et al., 2004) and larger (macro and mega-)fauna (Ampeliscid amphipod species, invertebrates like holothurians, echinoids, and fish like macrourids). Other fish like eelpout (zoarcids), however, all survived month-long exposure to episodic pH shifts of about –1.0 pH units. Animals held further (3–10 m) from CO2 pools were exposed to mild episodic pH reductions (about 0.1 – 0.2 pH units) exhibited mortality rates were (about 20– 50%) higher than at control sites (Barry et al., 2005). Figure 6.24 Experimental chamber going to the sea floor (Ishida et al. 2004). The bottom part houses a chamber that penetrates into the sediment. The top part houses electronics, pumps, valves, and water bags, that are used to control the CO2 concentration inside the chamber, and to sample sea water in the chamber at designated times. At the time of recovery, the bottom of the chamber is closed, weights are released, and the system returns to the surface of the ocean using buoyancy provided by the glass bulbs (yellow structures around the top). It is unknown whether mortality was caused primarily by short-term exposure to large pH / CO2 shifts or by chronic, milder pH perturbations. Tidal variation in current direction resulted in a highly variable exposure to pH perturbationsPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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