PDF Publication Title:
Text from PDF Page: 316
304 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Fish may be able to avoid contact to high CO2 exposure because they possess highly sensitive CO2 receptors that could be involved in behavioural responses to elevated CO2 levels (Yamashita et al., 1989). However, not all animals avoid low pH and high concentrations of CO2; they may actively swim into CO2-rich regions that carry the odour of potential food (e.g., bait; Tamburri et al., 2000, Box 6.6). a doubling of CO2 (to 560 ppmv) from pre-industrial levels. Shirayama and Thornton (2002) demonstrated that increases in dissolved CO2 levels to 560 ppm cause a reduction in growth rate and survival of shelled animals like echinoderms and gastropods. These findings indicate that previous atmospheric CO2 accumulation may already be affecting the growth of calcifying organisms, with the potential for large-scale changes in surface-ocean ecosystem structure. Due to atmospheric CO2 accumulation, global calcification rates could decrease by 50% over the next century (Zondervan et al., 2001), and there could be significant shifts in global biogeochemical cycles. Despite the potential importance of biogeochemical feedback induced by global change, our understanding of these processes is still in its infancy even in surface waters (Riebesell, 2004). Much less can be said about potential ecosystem shifts in the deep sea (Omori et al., 1998). Long-term effects of CO2 elevations identified in individual animal species affects processes in addition to calcification (reviewed by Ishimatsu et al., 2004, Pörtner and Reipschläger, 1996, Pörtner et al., 2004, 2005). In these cases, CO2 entry into the organism as well as decreased water pH values are likely to have been the cause. Major effects occur through a disturbance in acid-base regulation of several body compartments. Falling pH values result and these affect many metabolic functions, since enzymes and ion transporters are only active over a narrow pH range. pH decreases from CO2 accumulation are counteracted over time by an accumulation of bicarbonate anions in the affected body compartments (Heisler, 1986; Wheatly and Henry, 1992, Pörtner et al., 1998; Ishimatsu et al. 2004), but compensation is not always complete. Acid-base relevant ion transfer may disturb osmoregulation due to the required uptake of appropriate counter ions, which leads to an additional NaCl load of up to 10% in marine fish in high CO2 environments (Evans, 1984; Ishimatsu et al., 2004). Long-term disturbances in ion equilibria could be involved in mortality of fish over long time scales despite more or less complete compensation of acidification. Direct effects of dissolved CO2 on diving marine air breathers (mammals, turtles) can likely be excluded since they possess higher pCO2 values in their body fluids than water breathers and gas exchange is minimized during diving. They may nonetheless be indirectly affected through potential CO2 effects on the food chain (see 6.7.5). 6.7.2.4 Deep compared with shallow acute CO2 sensitivity Deep-sea organisms may be less sensitive to high CO2 levels than their cousins in surface waters, but this is controversial. Fish (and cephalopods) lead a sluggish mode of life with reduced oxygen demand at depths below 300 to 400 m. Metabolic activity of pelagic animals, including fish and cephalopods, generally decreases with depth (Childress, 1995; Seibel et al., 1997). However, Seibel and Walsh (2001) postulated that deep-sea animals would experience serious problems in oxygen supply under conditions of increased CO2 concentrations. They refer to midwater organisms that may not be representative of deep-sea fauna; as residents of so-called ‘oxygen minimum layers’ they have special adaptations for efficient extraction of oxygen from low-oxygen waters (Sanders and Childress, 1990; Childress and Seibel, 1998). Long-term impacts of elevated CO2 concentrations are more pronounced on early developmental than on adult stages of marine invertebrates and fish. Long-term depression of physiological rates may, over time scales of several months, contribute to enhanced mortality rates in a population (Shirayama and Thornton, 2002, Langenbuch and Pörtner, 2004). Prediction of future changes in ecosystem dynamics, structure and functioning therefore requires data on sub-lethal effects over the entire life history of organisms. 6.7.2.5 Long-term CO2 sensitivity The mechanisms limiting performance and long-term survival under moderately elevated CO2 levels are even less clear than those causing acute mortality. However, they appear more important since they may generate impacts in larger ocean volumes during widespread distribution of CO2 at moderate levels on long time scales. In animals relying on calcareous exoskeletons, physical damage may occur under permanent CO2 exposure through reduced calcification and even dissolution of the skeleton, however, effects of CO2 on calcification processes in the deep ocean have not been studied to date. Numerous studies have demonstrated the sensitivity of calcifying organisms living in surface waters to elevated CO2 levels on longer time scales (Gattuso et al. 1999, Reynaud et al., 2003, Feeley et al., 2004 and refs. therein). At least a dozen laboratory and field studies of corals and coralline algae have suggested reductions in calcification rates by 15–85% with Elevated CO2 levels may cause a depression of aerobic energy metabolism, due to incomplete compensation of the acidosis, as observed in several invertebrate examples (reviewed by Pörtner et al. 2004, 2005). In one model organism, the peanut worm Sipunculus nudus, high CO2 levels caused metabolic depression of up to 35% at 20,000 ppm pCO2. A central nervous mechanism also contributed, indicated by the accumulation of adenosine in the nervous tissue under 10,000 ppm pCO2. Adenosine caused metabolic depression linked to reduced ventilatory activity even more so when high CO2 was combined with oxygen deficiency (anoxia; Lutz and Nilsson, 1997). Studies addressing the specific role of adenosine or other neurotransmitters at lower CO2 levels or in marine fish during hypercapnia are not yet available. The depression of metabolism observed under high CO2 concentrations in marine invertebrates also includes inhibition of protein synthesis – a process that is fundamental to growth and reproduction. A CO2 induced reduction of water pH to 7.3 caused a 55% reduction in growth of Mediterranean mussels (Michaelidis et al. 2005; for review see Pörtner et al. 2004,PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
PDF Search Title:
CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGEOriginal File Name Searched:
srccs_wholereport.pdfDIY PDF Search: Google It | Yahoo | Bing
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
IT XR Project Redstone NFT Available for Sale: NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. Can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Turbine IT XR Project Redstone Design: NFT for sale... NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Includes all rights to this turbine design, including license for Fluid Handling Block I and II for the turbine assembly and housing. The NFT includes the blueprints (cad/cam), revenue streams, and all future development of the IT XR Project Redstone... More Info
Infinity Turbine ROT Radial Outflow Turbine 24 Design and Worldwide Rights: NFT for sale... NFT for the ROT 24 energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. This design can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. You may manufacture the unit, or get the revenues from its sale from Infinity Turbine. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Supercritical CO2 10 Liter Extractor Design and Worldwide Rights: The Infinity Supercritical 10L CO2 extractor is for botanical oil extraction, which is rich in terpenes and can produce shelf ready full spectrum oil. With over 5 years of development, this industry leader mature extractor machine has been sold since 2015 and is part of many profitable businesses. The process can also be used for electrowinning, e-waste recycling, and lithium battery recycling, gold mining electronic wastes, precious metals. CO2 can also be used in a reverse fuel cell with nafion to make a gas-to-liquids fuel, such as methanol, ethanol and butanol or ethylene. Supercritical CO2 has also been used for treating nafion to make it more effective catalyst. This NFT is for the purchase of worldwide rights which includes the design. More Info
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
Infinity Turbine Products: Special for this month, any plans are $10,000 for complete Cad/Cam blueprints. License is for one build. Try before you buy a production license. May pay by Bitcoin or other Crypto. Products Page... More Info
CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)