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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 305 2005). Fish may also grow slowly in high CO2 waters. Reduced growth was observed in juvenile white sturgeon (Crocker and Cech, 1996). In this case, the stimulation of ventilation and the associated increase in oxygen consumption indicated a shift in energy budget towards maintenance metabolism, which occurred at the expense of growth. This effect was associated with reductions in foraging activity. A harmful influence of CO2 on reproductive performance was found in two species of marine copepods (Acartia steuri, Acartia erythrea) and sea urchins (Hemicentrotus purcherrimus, Echinometra mathaei). While survival rates of adult copepods were not affected during 8 days at pCO2 up to 10,000 ppm, egg production and hatching rates of eggs were significantly reduced concomitant to an increased mortality of young-stage larvae seen at water pH 7.0 (Kurihara et al., 2004). In both sea urchin species tested, fertilization rates decreased with pCO2 rising above1000 ppm (below water pH 7.6; Kurihara et al., 2004). Hatching and survival of fish larvae also declined with water pCO2 and exposure time in all examined species (Ishimatsu et al., 2004). 6.7.3 From physiological mechanisms to ecosystems CO2 effects propagate from molecules via cells and tissues to whole animals and ecosystems (Figure 6.26; Table 6.4). Organisms are affected by chemistry changes that modulate crucial physiological functions. The success of a species can depend on effects on the most sensitive stages of its life cycle (e.g., egg, larvae, adult). Effects on molecules, cells, and tissues thus integrate into whole animal effects (Pörtner et al., 2004), affecting growth, behaviour, reproduction, and development of eggs and larvae. These processes then determine the ecological success (fitness) of a species, which can also depend on complex interaction among species. Differential effects of chemistry changes on the various species thus affect the entire ecosystem. Studies of CO2 susceptibility and affected mechanisms in individual species (Figure 6.26) support development of a cause and effect understanding for an entire ecosystem’s response to changes in ocean chemistry, but need to be complemented by field studies of ecosystem consequences. Figure 6.26 Effects of added CO2 at the scale of molecule to organism and associated changes in proton (H+), bicarbonate (HCO3–) and carbonate (CO32–) levels in a generalized and simplified marine invertebrate or fish. The blue region on top refers to open water; the tan region represents the organism. Generalized cellular processes are depicted on the left and occur in various tissues like brain, heart or muscle; depression of these processes has consequences (depicted on the right and top). Under CO2 stress, whole animal functions, like growth, behaviours or reproduction are depressed (adopted from Pörtner et al., 2005, – or + denotes a depression or stimulation of the respective function). Black arrows reflect diffusive movement of CO2 between compartments. Red arrows reflect effective factors, CO2, H+, HCO3– that modulate functions. Shaded areas indicate processes relevant for growth and energy budget.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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