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306 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage table 6.4 Physiological and ecological processes affected by CO2 (note that listed effects on phytoplankton are not relevant in the deep sea, but may become operative during large-scale mixing of CO2). Based on reviews by Heisler, 1986, Wheatly and Henry, 1992, Claiborne et al., 2002, Langdon et al., 2003 Shirayama, 2002, Kurihara et al., 2004, Ishimatsu et al., 2004, 2005, Pörtner et al. 2004, 2005, Riebesell, 2004, Feeley et al., 2004 and references therein. It could also reduce the capacity to attack or escape predation, which would have consequences for the organism’s food supply and thus overall fitness with consequences for the rest of the ecosystem. Complex organisms like animals proved to be more sensitive to changing environmental conditions like temperature extremes than are simpler, especially unicellular, organisms (Pörtner, 2002). It is not known whether animals are also more sensitive to extremes in CO2. CO2 affects many physiological mechanisms that are also affected by temperature and hypoxia (Figure 6.26). Challenges presented by added CO2 could lower long-term resistance to temperature extremes and thus narrow zoogeographical distribution ranges of affected species (Reynaud et al., 2003, Pörtner et al., 2005). Affected processes Organisms tested Calcification • Corals • Calcareous benthos and plankton Acid-base regulation • Fish • Sipunculids • Crustaceans Mortality • Scallops • Fish • Copepods • Echinoderms/gastropods • Sipunculids N-metabolism • Sipunculids Protein biosynthesis • Fish • Sipunculids • Crustaceans Ion homeostasis • Fish, crustaceans • Sipunculids Growth • Crustaceans • Scallops • Mussels • Fish • Echinoderms/gastropods Reproductive performance • Echinoderms • Fish • Copepods Cardio-respiratory functions • Fish Photosynthesis • Phytoplankton Growth and calcification Ecosystem structure Feedback on biogeo- chemical cycles (elemental stoichiometry C: N:P, DOC exudation) Tolerance thresholds likely vary between species and phyla, but still await quantification for most organisms. Due to differential sensitivities among and within organisms, a continuum of impacts on ecosystems is more likely than the existence of a well-defined threshold beyond which CO2 cannot be tolerated. Many species may be able to tolerate transient CO2 fluctuations, but may not be able to settle and thrive in areas where CO2 levels remain permanently elevated. At concentrations that do not cause acute mortality, limited tolerance may include reduced capacities of higher functions, that is added CO2 could reduce the capacity of growth and reproduction, or hamper resistance to infection (Burnett, 1997). Overall, extrapolation from knowledge mostly available for surface oceans indicates that acute CO2 effects (e.g., narcosis, mortality) will only occur in areas where pCO2 plumes reach significantly above 5000 ppm of atmospheric pressure (in the most sensitive squid) or above 13,000 or 40,000 ppm for juvenile or adult fish, respectively. Such effects are thus expected at CO2 increases with ∆pH < –1.0 for squid. According to the example presented in Figure 6.12, a towed pipe could avoid pH changes of this magnitude, however a fixed pipe without design optimization would produce a volume of several km3 with this pH change for an injection rate of 100 kg s–1. Depending on the scale of injection such immediate effects may thus be chosen to be confined to a small region of the ocean (Figures 6.13 and 6.14). At the ecosystem level, few studies carried out in surface oceans report that species may benefit under elevated CO2 levels. Riebesell (2004) summarized observations in surface ocean mesocosms under glacial (190 ppm) and increased CO2 concentrations (790 ppm). High CO2 concentrations caused higher net community production of phytoplankton. Diatoms dominated under glacial and elevated CO2 conditions, whereas Emiliania huxleyi dominated under present CO2 conditions. This example illustrates how species that are less sensitive to added CO2 could become dominant in a high CO2 environment, in this case due to stimulation of photosynthesis in resource limited phytoplankton species (Riebesell 2004). These conclusions have limited applicability to the deep sea, where animals and bacteria dominate. In animals, most processes are expected to be depressed by high CO2 and low pH levels (Table 6.4). 6.7.4 Biological consequences for water column release scenarios Available knowledge of CO2 effects and underlying mechanisms indicate that effects on marine fauna and their ecosystems will likely set in during long-term exposure to pCO2 of more than 400 to 500 ppm or associated moderate pH changes (by about 0.1–0.3 units), primarily in marine invertebrates (Pörtner et al. 2005) and, possibly, unicellular organisms. For injection at a rate of 0.37 GtCO2 yr–1 for 100 years (Figure 6.14), such critical pH shifts would occur in less than 1% of the total ocean volume by the end of this period. However,PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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