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308 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Box 6.7 Lake Nyos and deep-sea carbon dioxide storage. About 2 million tonnes of CO2 gas produced by volcanic activity were released in one night in 1986 by Lake Nyos, Cameroon, causing the death of at least 1700 people (Kling et al., 1994). Could CO2 released in the deep sea produce similar catastrophic release at the ocean surface? Such a catastrophic degassing involves the conversion of dissolved CO2 into the gas phase. In the gas phase, CO2 is buoyant and rises rapidly, entraining the surrounding water into the rising plume. As the water rises, CO2 bubbles form more readily. These processes can result in the rapid release of CO2 that has accumulated in the lake over a prolonged period of magmatic activity. Bubbles of CO2 gas can only form in sea water shallower than about 500 m when the partial pressure of CO2 in sea water exceeds the ambient total pressure. Most release schemes envision CO2 release deeper than this. CO2 released below 3000 m would tend to sink and then dissolve into the surrounding seawater. CO2 droplets released more shallowly generally dissolve within a few 100 vertical metres of release. The resulting waters are too dilute in CO2 to produce partial CO2 pressures exceeding total ambient pressure, thus CO2 bubbles would not form. Nevertheless, if somehow large volumes of liquid CO2 were suddenly transported above the liquid- gas phase boundary, there is a possibility of a self-accelerating regime of fluid motion that could lead to rapid degassing at the surface. The disaster at Lake Nyos was exacerbated because the volcanic crater confined the CO2 released by the lake; the open ocean surface does not provide such topographic confinement. Thus, there is no known mechanism that could produce an unstable volume of water containing 2 MtCO2 at depths shallower than 500 m, and thus no mechanism known by which ocean carbon storage could produce a disaster like that at Lake Nyos. 2.75. After receiving additional information from researchers, the mean rating for dilution-type and lake-type ocean storage increased to 2.42 and 2.72, respectively, while the mean ratings for onshore and offshore geologic storage increased to 2.65 and 2.82, respectively. In a similar conducted study in Pittsburgh, USA, Palmgren et al. (2004) found that when asked to rate ocean and geologic storage on a 1 to 7 scale (1 = completely oppose, 7 = completely favour) respondents’ mean rating was about 3.2 for ocean storage and about 3.5 for geological storage. After receiving information selected by the researchers, the respondents changed their ratings to about 2.4 for ocean storage and 3.0 for geological storage. Thus, in the Itaoka et al. (2004) study the information provided by the researchers increased the acceptance of all options considered whereas in the Study of Palmgren et al. (2004) the information provided by the researchers decreased the acceptance of all options considered. The differences could be due to many causes, nevertheless, they suggest that the way information is provided by researchers could affect whether the added information increases or decreases the acceptability of ocean storage options. 6.8 Legal issues 6.8.1 International law Gough et al. (2002) reported results from discussions of carbon storage from two unrepresentative focus groups comprising a total of 19 people. These focus groups also preferred geological storage to ocean storage; this preference appeared to be based, ‘not primarily upon concerns for the deep-sea ecological environment’, but on ‘the lack of a visible barrier to prevent CO2 escaping’ from the oceans. Gough et al. (2002) notes that ‘significant opposition’ developed around a proposed ocean CO2 release experiment in the Pacific Ocean (see Section 6.2.1.2). McCullagh (1996) considered the international legal control of ocean storage, and found that, whilst the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) encourages the use of the oceans as a reservoir for CO2, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is ambiguous in its application to ocean storage. Whilst ocean storage will reduce CO2 emissions and combat climate change, to constitute an active use of sinks and reservoirs as required by the UNFCCC, ocean storage would need to be the most cost-effective mitigation option. As for UNCLOS, it is unclear whether ocean storage will be allowable in all areas of the ocean, but provisions on protecting and preserving the marine environment will be applicable if CO2 is deemed to be ‘pollution’ under the Convention (which will be so, as the large quantity of CO2 introduced is likely to cause harm to living marine resources). In fulfilling their obligation to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment, states must act so as not to transfer damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of pollution into another, Please refer to Sections 5.8.1.1 (Sources and nature of international obligations) and 5.8.1.2 (Key issues in the application of the treaties to CO2 storage) for the general position of both geological and ocean storage of CO2 under international law. It is necessary to look at and interpret the primary sources, the treaty provisions themselves, to determine the permissibility or otherwise of ocean storage. Some secondary sources, principally the 2004 OSPAR Jurists Linguists’ paper containing the States Parties’ interpretation of the Convention (considered in detail in Section 5.8.1.3) and conference papers prepared for the IEA workshop in 1996, contain their authors’ individual interpretations of the treaties.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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