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322 7.1 introduction This chapter deals with: (i) the fixation of CO2 in the form of inorganic carbonates, also known as ‘mineral carbonation’ or ‘mineral sequestration’ that is discussed in Section 7.2, and (ii) the industrial uses of CO2 as a technical fluid or as feedstock for carbon containing chemicals, which is the subject of Section 7.3. 7.2 Mineral carbonation 7.2.1 Definitions, system boundaries and motivation Mineral carbonation is based on the reaction of CO2 with metal oxide bearing materials to form insoluble carbonates, with calcium and magnesium being the most attractive metals. In nature such a reaction is called silicate weathering and takes place on a geological time scale. It involves naturally occurring silicates as the source of alkaline and alkaline-earth metals and consumes atmospheric CO2. This chapter deals, however, with so-called mineral carbonation, where high concentration CO2 from a capture step (see Chapter 3) is brought into contact with metal oxide bearing materials with the purpose of fixing the CO2 as carbonates (Seifritz, 1990; Dunsmore, 1992; Lackner et al., 1995). Suitable materials may be abundant silicate rocks, serpentine and olivine minerals for example, or on a smaller- scale alkaline industrial residues, such as slag from steel production or fly ash. In the case of silicate rocks, carbonation can be carried out either ex-situ in a chemical processing plant after mining and pretreating the silicates, or in-situ, by injecting CO2 in silicate-rich geological formations or in alkaline aquifers. Industrial residues on the other hand can be carbonated in the same plant where they are produced. It is worth noting that products of in-situ mineral carbonation and geological storage may be similar for the fraction of the CO2 injected for geological IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage storage that reacts with the alkaline or alkaline-earth metals in the cap rock leading to ‘mineral trapping’ (see Chapter 5.2.2). In terms of material and energy balances, mineral carbonation can be schematized as illustrated in Figure 7.1, which applies to a power plant with CO2 capture and subsequent storage through mineral carbonation. With respect to the same scheme for a power plant with capture and either geological or ocean storage (see Figure 1.4) two differences can be observed. First, there is an additional material flux corresponding to the metal oxide bearing materials; this is present as input and also as output, in the form of carbonates, silica, non-reacted minerals and for some input minerals product water. Secondly, for the same usable energy output, the relative amounts of fossil fuels as input and of energy rejected as lower grade heat are different. In-situ carbonation is an operation similar to geological storage, while ex-situ carbonation involves processing steps requiring additional energy input that are difficult to compensate for with the energy released by the carbonation reaction. Given the similarities of in-situ carbonation with geological storage, this chapter will focus on ex-situ mineral carbonation. With present technology there is always a net demand for high grade energy to drive the mineral carbonation process that is needed for: (i) the preparation of the solid reactants, including mining, transport, grinding and activation when necessary; (ii) the processing, including the equivalent energy associated with the use, recycling and possible losses of additives and catalysts; (iii) the disposal of carbonates and byproducts. The relative importance of the three items differs depending on the source of the metal oxides, for example whether they are natural silicates or industrial wastes. Despite this potential energy penalty, interest in mineral carbonation stems from two features that make it unique among the different storage approaches, namely the abundance of metal oxide bearing materials, particularly of natural silicates, and the permanence of storage of CO2 in a stable solid form. However, Figure 7.1 Material and energy balances through the system boundaries for a power plant with CO2 capture and storage through mineral carbonation. The fossil fuel input provides energy both to the power plant that produces CO2 and to the mineralization process (either directly or indirectly via the power plant). The ‘other materials’ input serves all processes within the system boundaries and includes the metal oxide bearing materials for mineralization. The ‘other emissions’ output is made up of the byproducts of the mineralization reaction - silica and possibly water - as well as of non-reacted input materials.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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