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330 previous paragraph) of 80 US$/tCO2 stored was obtained, with 27.5% additional CO2 emissions, thus leading to 110 US$/tCO2 avoided. In the case of the two-step acetic acid process, an overall cost of 27 US$/tCO2 avoided has been reported, but the assumptions are based on a rather limited set of experimental data (Kakizawa et al., 2001). A comprehensive energy and economic evaluation of the single step wet carbonation process illustrated in Figure 7.3 has been recently reported (O’Connor et al., 2005) and is discussed in detail in Box 7.1. This study calculates storage costs between 50 and 100 US$/tCO2 stored, with between 30% and 50% of the energy produced needed as input to the mineral carbonation step, i.e. a corresponding reduction of power plant efficiency from 35% for instance to 25% and 18%, respectively. This implies that a full CCS system with mineral carbonation would need 60-180% more energy than a power plant with equivalent output without CCS, when the 10-40% energy penalty in the capture plant is accounted too. No similar economic evaluation is available for either dry mineral carbonation or carbonation using industrial residues. However, it is worth pointing out that the carbonation of toxic wastes may lead to stabilized materials with reduced leaching of heavy metals. Therefore these materials might be disposed of more easily or even used for applications such as in construction work (see Figure 7.2) (Venhuis and Reardon, 2001; Meima et al., 2002). Once the carbon has been stored through mineral carbonation, there are virtually no emissions of CO2 due to leakage. To the extent that weathering at the disposal site occurs and leaches out magnesium carbonate from the carbonation products, additional CO2 would be bound in the transformation of solid magnesium carbonate to dissolved magnesium bicarbonate (Lackner, 2002). It can therefore be concluded that the fraction of carbon dioxide stored through mineral carbonation that is retained after 1000 years is virtually certain to be 100%. As a consequence, the need for monitoring the disposal sites will be limited in the case of mineral carbonation. 7.2.8 Future scope 7.2.8.1 Public acceptance Public acceptance of mineral carbonation is contingent on the broader acceptance of CCS. Acceptance might be enhanced by the fact that this method of storage is highly verifiable and unquestionably permanent. On the downside, mineral carbonation involves large-scale mining and associated environmental concerns: terrain changes, dust pollution exacerbated by potential asbestos contamination and potential trace element mobilization. Generally, public acceptance will require a demonstration that everything possible is done to minimize secondary impacts on the environment. Mineral carbonation technology must reduce costs and reduce the energy requirements associated with mineral pretreatment by exploiting the exothermic nature of the reaction. Mineral carbonation will always be more expensive than most IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage 7.2.8.2 Gap analysis applications of geological storage, but in contrast has a virtually unlimited permanence and minimal monitoring requirements. Research towards reducing costs for the application of mineral carbonation to both natural silicates and industrial wastes, where the kinetics of the reaction is believed to be more favourable, is ongoing. Moreover, an evaluation is needed to determine the fraction of the natural reserves of silicates, which greatly exceed the needs, that can be effectively exploited for mineral carbonation. This will require thorough study, mapping the resources and matching sources and sinks, as in O’Connor et al. (2005). The actual size of the resource base will be significantly influenced by the legal and societal constraints at a specific location. Integrating power generation, mining, carbonation reaction, carbonates’ disposal and the associated transport of materials and energy needs to be optimized in a site-specific manner. A final important gap in mineral carbonation is the lack of a demonstration plant. 7.3 industrial uses of carbon dioxide and its emission reduction potential 7.3.1 Introduction As an alternative to storing captured CO in geological 2 formations (see Chapter 5), in the oceans (see Chapter 6), or in mineral form as carbonates (see Section 7.2), this section of the report assesses the potential for reducing net CO emissions to 2 the atmosphere by using CO2 either directly or as a feedstock in chemical processes that produce valuable carbon containing products. The utilization of CO establishes an inventory of 2 stored CO2, the so-called carbon chemical pool, primarily in the form of carbon-containing fuels, chemicals and other products (Xiaoding and Moulijn, 1996). The production and use of these products involve a variety of different ‘life cycles’ (i.e., the chain of processes required to manufacture a product from raw materials, to use the product for its intended purpose and ultimately to dispose of it or to reuse it in some fashion). Depending on the product life-cycle, CO2 is stored for varying periods of time and in varying amounts. As long as the recycled carbon remains in use, this carbon pool successfully stores carbon. Withdrawal from this pool, by decay or by disposal typically re-injects this carbon into the atmospheric pool. 1. The use of captured CO2 must not simply replace a source of CO2 that would then be vented to the atmosphere. Replacement of CO2 derived from a lime kiln or a fermentation process would not lead to a net reduction in CO2 emissions, while on the other hand replacement of CO2 derived from natural geological deposits, which would thus be left undisturbed, would lead to a net reduction of CO2 emissions. This would apply to the majority of the CO2 used for enhanced oil recovery in the USA (see Section 5.3.2) CO2 that has been captured using one of the options described in Chapter 3 could reduce net CO2 emissions to the atmosphere if used in industrial processes as a source of carbon, only if the following criteria are met:PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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