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Chapter 7: Mineral carbonation and industrial uses of carbon dioxide 333 savings that are difficult to quantify from current published data are claimed for energy/materials changes in the process. CO2 + 3H2 → CH3OH + H2O (6) Alternatively one could exploit only reaction (6), by using captured CO2 and hydrogen from water hydrolysis powered for instance by solar energy (Sano et al., 1998). 7.3.3.3 Capture of CO2 in biomass Biomass production of fuels also falls into the category of generating fuels from CO2. With the help of photosynthesis, solar energy can convert water and CO2 into energetic organic compounds like starch. These in turn can be converted into industrial fuels like methane, methanol, hydrogen or bio- diesel (Larson, 1993). Biomass can be produced in natural or agricultural settings, or in industrial settings, where elevated concentrations of CO2 from the off-gas of a power plant would feed micro-algae designed to convert CO2 into useful chemicals (Benemann, 1997). Since biological processes collect their own CO2, they actually perform CO2 capture (Dyson, 1976). If the biomass is put to good use, they also recycle carbon by returning it to its energetic state. Biomass production eliminates the need for fossil fuels, because it creates a new generation of biomass-based carbonaceous fuels. As a replacement for fossil energy it is outside the scope of this report. As a CO2 capture technology, biomass production is ultimately limited by the efficiency of converting light into chemically stored energy. Currently solar energy conversion efficiencies in agricultural biomass production are typically below 1% (300 GJ ha–1 yr–1 or 1 W m–2 (Larson, 1993)). Micro-algae production is operating at slightly higher rates of 1 to 2% derived by converting photon utilization efficiency into a ratio of chemical energy per unit of solar energy (Melis et al., 1998; Richmond and Zou, 1999). Hence the solar energy collection required for micro-algae to capture a power plant’s CO2 output is about one hundred times larger than the power plant’s electricity output. At an average of 200 W m–2 solar irradiation, a 100 MW power plant would require a solar collection area in the order of 50 km2. 7.3.4 Assessment of the mitigation potential of CO2 utilization Similarly, if all world polyurethane production was converted, then direct CO2 consumption would be about 2.7 MtCO2/yr. However, little progress in commercial application of CO2-based production has been reported. And as indicated earlier, these possible CO2 applications directly affect only a very small fraction of the anthropogenic CO2 emitted to the atmosphere. The net savings in CO2 would be even smaller or could be negative, as the energy that was available in the hydrocarbon resource is missing in the CO2 feedstock and unless compensated for by improved process efficiency it would have to be made up by additional energy supplies and their associated CO2 emissions. 7.3.3.2 Fuel production using carbon dioxide Liquid carbon-based fuels, gasoline and methanol for example, are attractive because of their high energy density and convenience of use, which is founded in part on a well- established infrastructure. Carbon dioxide could become the raw material for producing carbon-based fuels with the help of additional energy. Since energy is conserved, this cannot provide a net reduction in carbon dioxide emissions as long as the underlying energy source is fossil carbon. If a unit of energy from a primary resource produces a certain amount of CO2, then producing a fuel from CO2 will recycle CO2 but release an equivalent amount of CO2 to provide the necessary energy for the conversion. Since all these conversion processes involve energy losses, the total CO2 generated during fuel synthesis tends to exceed the CO2 converted, which once used up, is also emitted. Production of liquid carbon-based fuels from CO2 only reduces CO2 emissions if the underlying energy infrastructure is not based on fossil energy. For example, one could still use gasoline or methanol rather than converting the transport sector to hydrogen, by using hydrogen and CO2 as feedstocks for producing gasoline or methanol. The hydrogen would be produced from water, using hydropower, nuclear energy, solar energy or wind energy. As long as some power generation using fossil fuels remains, carbon dioxide for this conversion will be available (Eliasson, 1994). Alternatively, it might be possible to create a closed cycle with CO2 being retrieved from the atmosphere by biological or chemical means. Such cycles would rely on the availability of cheap, clean and abundant non-fossil energy, as would the hydrogen economy, and as such they are beyond the scope of this report. This final section aims at clarifying the following points: (i) to what extent the carbon chemical pool stores CO2; (ii) how long CO2 is stored in the carbon chemical pool; (iii) how large the contribution of the carbon chemical pool is to emission mitigation. Methanol production is an example of the synthesis of liquid fuels from CO2 and hydrogen. Today a mixture of CO, CO2 and hydrogen is produced through reforming or partial oxidation or auto thermal reforming of fossil fuels, mainly natural gas. The methanol producing reactions, which are exothermic, take place over a copper/zinc/alumina catalyst at about 260°C (Inui, 1996; Arakawa, 1998; Ushikoshi et al., 1998; Halmann and Steinberg, 1999): To consider the first point, the extent of CO2 storage provided by the carbon chemical pool, it is worth referring again to Table 7.2. As reported there, total industrial CO2 use is approximately 115 MtCO2 yr-1. Production of urea is the largest consumer of CO2, accounting for over 60% of that total. To put it in perspective, the total is only 0.5% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions – about 24 GtCO2 yr-1. However, it is essential to realize that these figures represent only the yearly CO2 flux in and out of the carbon chemical pool, and not the actual size of the pool, which is controlled by marketing and product distribution considerations and might be rather smaller than CO + 2H2 → CH3OH (5)PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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