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370 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage elaboration in methodologies. • The long-term physical leakage of stored CO2 (escape of (possible fugitive CO2 emissions) would need to be estimated and reported separately to those resulting from the combustion process (see also Section 9.3 on issues relating to accounting and allocation of the emissions and emissions reductions). 9.2.2.2 Transportation CO2 from a storage reservoir) is not covered by the existing framework for reporting emissions in the IPCC Guidelines. Different options exist to report these emissions in the inventories (for example, in the relevant sectors/categories producing the emissions initially, by creating a separate and new category under fugitive emissions, or by creating a new category for the capture, transportation and/or storage industry). Most research on CCS systems focuses on the capture and storage processes and fugitive emissions from CO2 transportation are often overlooked (Gale and Davison, 2002). CO2 transportation in pipelines and ships is discussed in Chapter . Limited quantities of CO2 could also be transported via railway or by trucks (Davison et al., 2001). The additional energy required for pipeline transport is mostly covered by compression at the capture site. Additional compression may be required when CO2 is transported very long distances. The emissions from fossil fuel in transportation by ships, rail or trucks would be covered under the category on mobile combustion and other subcategories in the Energy sector. However, according to the current IPCC guidelines, emissions from fuels sold to any means of international transport should be excluded from the national total emissions and be reported separately as emissions from international bunkers. These emissions are not included in national commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (e.g., IPCC 1997 and 2000, see also Section 9.3). • Application of CCS to CO2 emissions from biomass combustion, and to other CO2 emissions of biological origin (for example, fermentation processes in the production of food and drinks) would require specific treatment in inventories. It is generally assumed that combustion of biomass fuels results in zero net CO2 emissions if the biomass fuels are produced sustainably. In this case, the CO2 released by combustion is balanced by CO2 taken up during photosynthesis. In greenhouse gas inventories, CO2 emissions from biomass combustion are, therefore, not reported under Energy. Any unsustainable production should be evident in the calculation of CO2 emissions and removals in Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Sector. Thus, CCS from biomass sources would be reported as negative CO2 emissions. Any fugitive emissions or accidental releases from transportation modes could be covered in the Energy sector under the category ‘Fugitive Emissions’. CO2 emissions from a pipeline can occur at the intake side during pumping and compression, at the pipeline joints, or at the storage site. Emission rates can differ from surface, underground and sub- sea pipelines. Explicit guidance for CO2 transportation in pipelines is not given in the current IPCC methodologies, but a methodology for natural gas pipelines is included. A distinction is to be made between leakage during normal operation and CO2 losses during accidents or other physical disruptions. As described in Chapter , statistics on the incident rate in pipelines for natural gas and CO2 varied from 0.00011 to 0.00032 incidents km-1 year-1 (Gale and Davison, 2002). However, as an analogy of CO2 transportation to natural gas transportation, Gielen (2003) reported that natural gas losses during transportation can be substantial. 9.2.2.1 Capture The capture processes are well defined in space and time, and their emissions (from additional energy use, fugitives, etc.) could be covered by current national and annual inventory systems. The capture processes would result in reduced emissions from industrial plants, power plants and other sites of fuel combustion. For estimation purposes, the reduced CO2 emissions could be determined by measuring the amount of CO2 captured and deducting this from the total amount of CO2 produced (see Figure 8.2 in Chapter 8). The total amount of CO2, including emissions from the additional energy consumption necessary to operate the capture process, could be estimated using the methods and guidance in the IPCC Guidelines and GPG2000. The capture process could produce emissions of other greenhouse gases, such as CH from treatment of effluents (for example, from amine decomposition). These emissions are not included explicitly in the IPCC Guidelines and GPG2000. Estimates on the significance of these emissions are not available, but are likely to be small or negligible compared to the amount of captured CO2. Total emissions from pipelines could be calculated on the basis of the net difference between the intake and discharge flow rates of the pipelines. Because CO2 is transported in pipelines as a supercritical or dense phase fluid, the effect of the surrounding temperature on the estimated flow rate would need to be taken into account. Volumetric values would need to be corrected accordingly when CO2 is transmitted from a cooler climate to a moderate or hot climate, and vice versa. In some cases, fugitive losses could be lower than metering accuracy tolerances. Hence, all metering devices measuring CO2 export and injection should be to a given standard and with appropriate tolerances applied. But metering uncertainties may prohibit measurement of small quantities of losses during transportation. For transportation by CO2 pipeline across the borders of several countries, emissions would need to be allocated to the countries where they occur. Although not all possible CCS systems can be considered here, it is clear that some cases would require different approaches. For example, pre-combustion decarbonization in fuel production units presents some important differences compared to the post-combustion methods, and the simple estimation process described above might not be applicable. For example, the capture of CO2 may take place in a different country than the one in which the decarbonized fuel is used. This would mean that emissions associated with the capture processPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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