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372 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Reporting of uncertainties in emission and removal estimates, and how they have been derived, is an essential part of national greenhouse gas inventories. Uncertainty estimates can be based on statistical methods where measured data are available, or on expert judgement. No information on uncertainties related to emissions from different phases of CCS systems was available. In Section 5.7.3, the probability of release from geological storage is assessed based on data from analogous natural or engineered systems, fundamental physical and chemical processes, as well as from experience with current geological storage projects. The probabilities of physical leakage are estimated to be small and the risks are mainly associated with leakage from well casings of abandoned wells. 9.3 Accounting issues or unexpected sources of emissions occur in different countries, for example, if CO2 is captured in one country but released in another, or at later times, for example, if CO2 is captured during one time period and physically leaked to the atmosphere at a later time. One of the goals of an accounting system is to ensure that CCS projects produce real and quantifiable environmental benefits. One ton of CO2 permanently stored has the same benefit in terms of atmospheric CO2 concentrations as one ton of CO2 emissions avoided. But one ton of CO2 temporarily stored has less value than one ton of CO2 emissions avoided. This difference can be reflected in the accounting system. Accounting for CCS may have to go beyond measuring the amount of CO2 stored in order to ensure the credibility of storage credits and that credits claimed are commensurate with benefits gained. CO2 storage should not avoid properly accounting for emissions that have been moved to other times, other places, or other sectors. Yet, Kennett (2003) notes that if there is benefit to potentially permanent or even to known temporary storage, accounting systems should contribute to their credibility and transparency while minimizing transaction costs. In this section, ideas on the issues involved in accounting are summarized for the stored CO2 of CCS systems. The consequences for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions are discussed, and ideas on alternative accounting strategies to address them are presented. Figure 9.2 provides a simple flow diagram of how CCS emissions can create flows of greenhouse gases that transcend traditional accounting boundaries. The diagram also shows how emissions might escape reporting because they occur outside normal system boundaries (sectoral, national, or temporal) of reporting entities. In a political environment where only some parties have commitments to limit greenhouse gas emissions and where emissions from all sources are not treated the same, the amount by which emissions are reduced may not be equal to the amount of CO2 stored. Differences can occur because CO2 can be captured in one country but released in another country or at a later time. Also, CCs requires energy and likely additional emissions of CO2 to produce this additional energy. Yoshigahara et al. (200) note that emission reduction through CCS technology differs from many other modes of emission reduction. Although the former avoids CO2 release to the atmosphere, it creates the long-term possibility that stored CO2 could eventually flow to the atmosphere through physical leakage. Concern about displacement of emissions across temporal boundaries is essentially the widely posed question: ‘if we store carbon away from the atmosphere, how long must it be stored?’ The same question is phrased by Herzog et al. (2003) as ‘What is the value of temporary storage?’ In this Chapter, the general term ‘leakage’ is used in the economist’s sense, to describe displacement of greenhouse gas emissions beyond the boundaries of the system under discussion. The term ‘physical leakage’ refers to escape of CO2 from a storage reservoir. As discussed above, some physical leakage effects and the additional energy requirements will be reported within standard, national reporting procedures for greenhouse gas emissions. Additional complexities arise when new or unexpected sources of emissions occur, for example, if CO2 injected into an uneconomic coal seam forces the release of methane from that seam. Complexities also arise when new Concern about leakage among countries, sectors, or gases; or physical leakage from reservoirs is largely about the completeness and accuracy of emissions accounting. Kennett (2003), for example, emphasizes the importance of ‘establishing general rules and procedures to simplify transactions, and increasing certainty by defining legal rights and by providing dispute resolution and enforcement procedures’ and of ensuring the credibility of sinks-based emissions offsets or storage-based emissions reductions. The operation of a market requires clearly defined rights (i.e. who has the rights to the carbon stored), what those rights entail, how those rights can be transferred, and liability and remedies in the event of unanticipated release (Kennett, 2003). The core of establishing rights, liabilities, and markets will be the accounting and certification systems. Yet, a well-designed accounting system should not lead to transaction costs that unnecessarily discourage meritorious activities. The problems of economic leakage are not unique to CCS systems, but the problems of physical leakage are unique to CCS. In particular, when emission inventories are done by country and year they may fail to report emissions that are delayed in time, displaced to other countries or to international waters, or that stimulate emissions of other greenhouse gases not identified as sources or for which methodologies have not been developed. Concern about displacement of emissions across national boundaries is a consequence of the political and economic constructs being developed to limit greenhouse gas emissions. Most notably, the Kyoto Protocol imposes limits on greenhouse gas emissions from developed countries and from countries with economies in transition, but no such limits on emissions from developing countries or international transport.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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