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Another key challenge to carbon utilization for the production of fuels is the availability of low-cost, low-carbon hydrogen. Steam methane reforming (SMR), the process by which methane reacts with steam at a high temperature to produce hydrogen, is in use with carbon capture at a number of projects worldwide. Water electrolysis, where hydrogen is separated from water in an electrochemical cell, is far more expensive and requires low-carbon electricity but is an area of active research. An increase in market demand for hydrogen would likely be met in the short term by SMR in conjunction with carbon capture. Algae-based carbon utilization offers significant near-term opportunities in some product categories (e.g., biofertilizers, aquaculture, livestock feed, and feed additives), while other product categories (e.g., fuels, bioplastics) require research and development (R&D) efforts to drive down costs, especially downstream processing costs. One significant advantage of algae-based carbon utilization is that high-purity CO2 is not required to support algae growth, and some combustion waste products such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx) can actually serve as algal nutrients. POLICY CONSIDERATIONS All CCU sectors face challenges to commercialization in terms of either technology, cost, or market acceptance. These can be overcome with supportive government policies in four areas: financial enablers, R&D support, development of CO2 transportation infrastructure, and market preferences such as procurement policies and “green labeling.” Some broad policy approaches, such as those that encourage all applications of carbon capture (not only beneficial carbon utilization), may be necessary to generally help foster decarbonization. However, sector-specific challenges may also be addressed. One broad-based policy currently in place is the “45Q” tax credit, enacted in 2018, which offers a tax preference for either qualified utilization of carbon oxides, or geologic storage (including in saline formations or through EOR). However, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service is not expected to publish the guidance necessary to implement the law until later in 2019, which has caused uncertainty for CCU developers who might expect to benefit from the tax credit. Given the delay in implementation, Congress may need to extend the law’s deadline for commencing project construction and lower the eligibility threshold requirement if it expects small CCU developers to benefit. Several policies currently before Congress would encourage the deployment of CCU. Legislation known as the USE IT Act, introduced in both houses of Congress, would facilitate coordinated development of CO2 pipelines and provide CCU research prize funding. Similarly, CCU will advance sooner if relevant federal R&D is expanded both in terms of its funding level and its support for pilot-level work. Finally, facilitating the construction of adequate infra- structure for the movement of CO2 is also important to sparking widespread CCU deployment. As for sectoral issues, government procurement rules can act as market drivers, while federal R&D spending should be targeted to ensure successful pathways to commercialization, not only basic research. Low-carbon construction materials will benefit from incentives at all levels of government that encourage the use of components containing captured carbon. For fuels, renewable fuel standards, low-carbon fuel standards, and other incentives will grow the low-carbon fuel market, if they include fuels from carbon utilization. This report focuses on policy actions that can foster growth in carbon utilization by 2030, in part because markets beyond that timeframe are difficult to predict, but mostly because deliberate near-term action is needed if CCU is to expand significantly. However, more general climate policies, such as carbon pricing or the inclusion of fossil-based carbon capture in clean energy standards, are also necessary to lay the foundation for a low-carbon economy that includes new demand for CCU-based products and processes. vi Center for Climate and Energy SolutionsPDF Image | Carbon Utilization
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