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generates a saleable product, and addresses the methane regulatory issue for gas producers. A good example of the importance of advancing this indirect conversion pathway is provided by technology developed by LanzaTech. The company has created a process through which engineered microbes convert CO into ethanol. This technology has been demonstrated at commercial scale using waste gas from steel production, which is high in CO content. The availability of CO was a critical component that allowed for the development of this successful utilization technology. Inexpensive, widespread availability of more chemically active CO generated from CO2 could result in the advancement of multiple technologies to generate fuels and chemicals from CO2. Plastics are included in this section on fuels and chemicals because the building blocks of most polymers include the commodity chemicals discussed above. Processes that generate commodity chemicals from CO2 will inherently produce polymers with lower life-cycle carbon emissions than those generated from petrochemicals. Polymers can also play a significant role in carbon utilization through direct inclusion of CO2 into the polymer matrix of various materials. For example, Covestro has developed a process that imbeds CO2 within the polymer chain of polyols used in the manufacture of foams for products such as mattresses. Production using this approach started in 2016 near Cologne, Germany. The facility now produces approximately 5,000 tons/year of foams that incorporate CO2. Research is being conducted to develop approaches that incorporate more CO2 into their polymer blends. ALGAE-BASED PRODUCTS Algae-based carbon utilization holds near-term promise in some product categories (e.g., biofertilizers, aquaculture, livestock feed, and feed additives), while other product categories (e.g., fuels, bioplastics) will require additional R&D to drive down costs to be commercially viable. Algae are extremely efficient photosynthetic organisms—sometimes referred to as CO2 eating machines. In 2015, the IEA Clean Coal Centre noted several advantages to algae-based carbon utilization:20 • High-purity CO2 is not required to support algal growth. • Flue gas containing varying amounts of CO2 can be fed directly to the microalgae, reducing or eliminating the need for CO2 capture systems. • Some combustion waste products such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) or sulphur oxides (SOx) can be used as nutrients for microalgae (microscopic algae). • Microalgae could yield high-value commercial products. The sale of these high-value products could offset the capital and operating costs of the process. • Algae can be grown in open raceway pond systems and closed photobioreactor systems, including flexible plastic film systems, tubular reactors, and flat panel systems. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has also noted that algae-based CO2 conversion offers a number of economic and environmental benefits, including:21 • High potential yield per acre • The ability to grow on land not suited for agriculture, as well as in brackish or waste water • High absorption of CO2 and relative ease of conversion into fuels and products. One of the most attractive features of algae-based utilization is the wide range of potential products that can be generated, as noted in Table 3. 14 Center for Climate and Energy SolutionsPDF Image | Carbon Utilization
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