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Energies 2021, 14, 387 4 of 32 emitted into the atmosphere [13]. Conversely, new iron and steel mills, such as the one in Abu Dhabi, are being built with a new configuration. The main components of these plants are a Direct Reduction Iron (DRI) reactor coupled with an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). Methane replaces coal and flows into a Steam Reformer (SR). The reducing gases produced and a mix of scrap and iron ore are conveyed into the DRI reactor. Hydrogen and carbon monoxide reduce the iron and CO2 can be easily separated. At the end of this process, only 0.54 tCO2/tLS are produced, saving 70% of CO2 emissions [13]. Several large-scale CCS facilities applied to oil refining, fuel processing and fertiliser production are in operation. Most of them are in the USA (e.g., Illinois industrial CCS for Ethanol production, Century plant natural gas facility in Texas, Coffeyville gasifi- cation plant producing fertiliser) and CO2 is transported from them for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). 2.2. Decarbonization of the Power Sector Electric power plants emit the largest of CO2 into atmosphere. In the world several countries are primarily dependent upon coal-fired power plants. The first Super-Critical Pulverised Coal (SCPC) fired power plant (i.e., Philo unit 6) was built in 1957 and has been operated until the 1979 [14], while the first Ultra Super-Critical (USC) power plant was built in 1993 in Japan [15]. SCPC and USC power plants work at higher temperatures and pressure than a subcritical power plant. As a result, they achieve a higher thermodynamic efficiency. Coal is milled and burned with air (or near pure oxygen in case of oxy-fuel combustion carbon capture process) in the boiler. The heat produced by combustion is transferred to a secondary working fluid, typically water that circulates into a Rankine cycle. The steam operation conditions are above critical point (i.e., pressure 22.115 MPa and temperature 374.15 ◦C) and, at this state, there is no distinction between gas and liquid phase. In SCPC, steam is produced at pressure between 22.115 and 25 MPa and a temperature between 540–580 ◦C. In contrast, in USC power plant, water operates at pressure and temperature higher than 25 MPa and 580 ◦C, respectively [16]. The steam produced goes into turbines, which turns a shaft that is connected to a generator to generate electricity. The spent steam is condensed, and it flows again into the boiler. There are only two large-scale facilities currently in operation based on post-combustion process Boundary Dam and Petra Nova coal-fired power plants are provided by a new separation unit (i.e., amine-based gas separation) used to purified the flue gas from SO2 and NOx, and separate the CO2 from gas mixture [17,18]. Another large-scale CCS facility is in construction (i.e., the ZERO project) and it captures CO2 with an oxy-fuel process. At the end, several pilot demonstration CCS facilities operate since 2010. In the next sections, a techno-economic review is provided, showing the carbon capture cost of the different CCS processes applied to power plants. 3. Techno-Economic Considerations on CO2 Capture The minimum thermodynamic energy demand to separate one mole of CO2 from a gas mixture is function of the CO2 capture fraction (capture rate/100), and it is calculated through Equation (1). The equation below, provided by Amel’kin et al., considers the more realistic incomplete separation of CO2, producing a pure stream of carbon dioxide and lean CO2 flue gas [19]. (1− f)x ln(1− fx) ln(1− f) W=−RT ln 1−fx + fx − f (1) where R is the specific gas constant (8.314 J/(mol K)), T is the temperature (K), x is the CO2 mole fraction, and f is the CO2 capture rate. Figure 2 shows the specific energy requirement for CO2 separation as a function of the capture rate. Figure illustrates several CO2 inlet concentrations that represent capture from air (410 ppm), natural gas combined cycle (4%), coal-fired power station (12%), and EAF steel plant (20%).PDF Image | Energies 14
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