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Energies 2021, 14, 387 where R is the specific gas constant (8.314 J/(mol K)), T is the temperature (K), x is the CO2 mole fraction, and f is the CO2 capture rate. Figure 2 shows the specific energy requirement for CO2 separation as a function of the capture rate. Figure illustrates several CO2 inlet 5 of 32 concentrations that represent capture from air (410 ppm), natural gas combined cycle (4%), coal-fired power station (12%), and EAF steel plant (20%). 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% CO2 capture rate [%] 90% 100% 410 ppm 4.0% 12% 20% 50% 60% 70% 80% Figure 2. Minimum energy requirement for CO2 capture depending on the capture rate and inlet Figure 2. Minimum energy requirement for CO2 c(1a−pft)uxre delpn(e1n−dfixn)g onln(t1h−efc)apture rate and inlet concentrationofCO at50◦C.W=−RTln + − [19]. 2 1−fx fx f concentrationofCO2 at50°C. =− + − [19]. The minimum energy requirement increases at high CO2 capture rate and at low inlet The minimum energy requirement increases at high CO2 capture rate and at low inlet concentration. Nevertheless, the energy demand in a real process is always higher. concentTrahteiocno.sNt oefvCerCthSeilsetshse, tmheajeonrecrhgaylldenemgeaonfdthinisatercehalnpolrogcye.ssThiseaplwricaeysofhCigChSeri.s divided intTohtehrceoestcoatfeCgCorSieis (tchaepmtuarjeo,rccohmalplerensgseioonf athnids treacnhsnpoolortgayti.oTnh, eanpdricsetoorfagCeC) Sasisredpivoirdted in inttohethnreextcsaetcetgiorni.eTsh(ceaCptCuSrec,ocsotmisphraersdsitooneasntidmtartaen,smpaoirntalytiodnu,eatnodasltaocrkagoef)eamsprierpicoarlteddata, in dthifefenrexnt osepcetrioatni.ngThceonCdCitSiocnossatnisdhcarpdtutroeepsrtoimceastse,s,maanidnldyifdfeurentot CaClaScpklaonftes.mpirical data, diTffheerecnotsotpoefraCtCinSg[c2o0n]disitiofntesnanedxpcraepstsuerdeapsroacnesesneesr,gaynd(pdoiwfferegnetnCeCraStipolnanstesc.tor) or effiTchiencoyst(bofthCCpoSw[2e0r]ainsdoifntednusetxrpiarlesescetdorass) paneneanlteyr.gTyh(epeonweerrgygepneenraltiyonansdecetfofirc)ieonrcy effpiceiennaclty(abroethreporewsenrtaenddbienlodwus:trial sectors) penalty. The energy penalty and efficiency penalty are represented below: Power output without CCS − Power output with CCS Energy penalty = 100· (2) Power output without CCS − Power output with CCS Energy penalty = 100 ∙ Power output without CCS (2) Power output without CCS Efficiency penalty = Efficiency without CCS − Efficiency with CCS [%] (3) Efficiency penalty = Efficiency without CCS − Efficiency with CCS [%] (3) For the power sector, another important parameter is the Levelized Cost of Electricity For the power sector, another important parameter is the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) based on [$/MWh]. The electricity cost is evaluated as follows: (LCOE) based on [$/MWh]. The electricity cost is evaluated as follows: TCC·FC∙F+FOM $ $ LCOELC=OE = CF·8766·MW + V+OMVO+MHR+∙HFCR·FC (4)(4) ∙∙ MWh where: TCC is the Total Capital Cost [$]; FCF is the Fixed Charge Factor [fraction/year]; where: TCC is the Total Capital Cost [$]; FCF is the Fixed Charge Factor [fraction/year]; FOM is the Fixed Operating and Maintenance cost [$/year]; CF is the plant Capacity Fac- FOM is the Fixed Operating and Maintenance cost [$/year]; CF is the plant Capacity tor; MW is the net plant capacity [MW]; VOM is the Variable non-fuel Operating and Factor; MW is the net plant capacity [MW]; VOM is the Variable non-fuel Operating and Maintenance cost [$/MWh]; HR is the net power plant Heat Rate [MJ/MWh]; FC is the unit Maintenance cost [$/MWh]; HR is the net power plant Heat Rate [MJ/MWh]; FC is the Fuel Cost [$/MJ]. unit Fuel Cost [$/MJ]. The various capture technologies are also compared by considering the cost of car- The various capture technologies are also compared by considering the cost of carbon, bon, which may refer to both the CO2 captured and CO2 avoided costs in [$/t CO2] shown which may refer to both the CO2 captured and CO2 avoided costs in [$/t CO2] shown in in the equations below: the equations below: Cost of captured CO2 = Cost of avoided CO2 = LCOECC − LCOEref $ (tCO2/MWh) t captured CO2 (5) (6) LCOECCS − LCOEref ηb $ CO2 Qe,b· 1− ηCC ·(1−C) t Energy requirement [kWh/tons of CO2]PDF Image | Energies 14
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