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Energies 2021, 14, 387 6 of 32 where Qe,b is the baseline emission [tCO2/MWh], ηb—the baseline efficiency, ηCC—the efficiency with carbon capture, and C—the capture fraction. In future, the cost of CO2 capture is likely to go down, but the estimation of future costs is rather uncertain. Rubin et al. [21] reported the capture cost in constant 2013 US$, whereas Merkel et al. [22] reported the capture cost with membrane separation in constant 2011 US$. In this review, we report the overall cost of CSS in 2013 US$, and therefore the costs reported in different years have to be adjusted. We have used the Power Capital Cost Index (PCCI) to escalate the capital and non-fuel operating and maintenance costs of power plants, the fuel cost index to escalate the cost of coal and natural gas, and the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) to escalate both the transportation and storage costs shown in Sections 4 and 5. In addition, the analysis reported in this work was performed using the First-Of-A-Kind (FOAK) CCS cost estimation, and therefore we have avoided all analyses which forecast a CCS cost reduction. 3.1. Oxy-Fuel Combustion CO2 Capture Oxyfuel combustion is one of the most mature technologies for capturing CO2 from power plants. Near-pure oxygen is used as an oxidant to burn fuel. A fraction of flue gas composed almost entirely of CO2, H2, and oxygen in excess, is recirculated into the boiler to control the temperature in the combustion zone. Indeed, fuel combustion with pure O2 produces a high adiabatic flame temperature. The separation of CO2 occurs through dehydration of the flue gas at low temperatures. The flue gas may be purified of contaminants (e.g., SOx, NOx, HCl coming from the fuel and N2, Ar, O2 coming from the oxygen flow). While the concentration of CO2 of conventional coal-fired power plants is approxi- mately 12%v, for a traditional gas turbine the content of carbon molecule is lower (about 4%v) due to the high excess of air used to control the combustion temperature. There- fore, post-combustion capture (via chemical adsorption) is disadvantaged, and oxyfuel combustion can be a good strategy [23]. Generally, these plants are classified in: • Secondary cycle: flue gas, coming from the combustion chamber, heats an external working fluid through heat exchangers (e.g., Rankine cycles). • Direct cycle: flue gas is also the working fluid and generates power in a turbo-gas (e.g., Brayton cycles). The main components of oxyfuel combustion power generation are [23]: (i) Air Separation Unit (ASU) to produce near pure oxygen; (ii) Boiler or gas turbine to burn fuel and to generate power heat; (iii) Flue gas processing unit to clean flue gas and control its quality; (iv) CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) for the final purification of carbon dioxide. The main requirement for any oxyfuel combustion process is oxygen production. Conventional cryogenic multi-column distillation is currently the most efficient and cost- effective technology for producing oxygen on a large scale. The standard method consists of a double column distillation cycle with a high/low-pressure column. The gaseous air coming into a high-pressure column is separated into an overhead nitrogen vapor and oxygen-enriched bottom liquid. At the current plant size, the production of O2, at 95% of purityandlowpressure,consumes200–250kWhel/tO2 [23]. Oxyfuel combustion is applied both in coal-fired power plants and gas turbine-based power plants. In Figure 3a, the heat generated by coal combustion with near pure oxygen is supplied to a secondary cycle in the boiler. By contrast, in the gas turbine cycle shown in Figure 3b, the flue gas at high pressure and temperature produces electricity through a gas turbine (direct cycle) and provides power heat to a secondary cycle in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). It is worth mentioning an emerging power plant based on the Allam cycle. The Allam cycle combines the oxy-combustion CO2 capture process with the supercritical CO2 used as working fluid at very high pressure (≃300 bar) and temperatures (≃1150 ◦C at the turbinePDF Image | Energies 14
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