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Energies 2021, 14, 387 25 of 32 6. Comparison between the Most Promising Technologies and CCS Cost Results Previous sections present techno-economic analysis on the full pathway that, starting from captured CO2 from power and process industries by several carbon capture tech- nologies, will deliver it to geological sequestration by pipeline. The main carbon capture processes (oxyfuel-combustion, pre-combustion and post-combustion), the CO2 transporta- tion to onshore/offshore storage sites, the CO2 deep marine injection into hydrates site are examined by techno-economic analysis. At the same time, several membranes with the best performance are reported for the purification of the CO2/CH4 effluent returning from the storage site in which injected CO2 replaces CH4. The final CCS chain can be designed considering parameter specification of each component (capture, transport, and storage), incorporating relevant global parameters (e.g., electricity price, methane price) and evaluating economic outcomes of the chain, typically net present value and CO2 cost. The potential of a commercial CCS project is affected by CCS technology maturity level, business economy factors, environmental impact risk associated with the full pathway of CCS, public acceptance, regulation, and market. We have reported the efficiency penalty of the plant with CCS, the increasing levelized cost of electricity, and CO2 capture cost. As key results, the cost of CO2 captured for oxyfuel combustion (air separation unit), pre-combustion (PSA) and post-combustion (MEA) were 52 [$/t], 63 [$/t] and 46 [$/t], respectively, while the CO2 capture cost resulted by membrane separation technology developed by MTR and NETL is 2 $/tCO2 less than MEA. Therefore, the best performance is reached by applying the membrane separation process as post-combustion capture technology resulting in cheaper CO2 capture cost. At the state of the art, MEA technology is the most used and less expansive at large scale, but the membrane capture system seems the most promising and interesting process to scale-up. Concerning the transportation of CO2, economic analysis shows different results when different methods are applied. Among them, we have illustrated the two, which lead to lower and higher values, to report the range of CO2 cost transportation at different lengths of the pipeline. As result, for 100 [km], the range of CO2 cost transportation is between 0.8 and 1.4 [$/t]. Finally, several geological storages were analyzed, and several values are reported in the literature. The biogas separation cost has to be added when methane is produced from a NGH reservoir. Figure 16 points out the cost of the complete CCS chain, considering conventional storage sites and NGH reservoir. CCS cost low line is composed of the cost of CO2 capture and the most economical cost of CO2 transport (using Rui et al. method) and storage (1.5 $/t CO2 see Table 8). On the contrary, the CCS cost high line takes into account the CO2 capture cost, and the higher cost of CO2 transport (using the Parker method) and storage (i.e., 30.6 $/t and 11.6 $/t for conventional site and NGH reservoir, respectively). The figure illustrates the trend of CCS cost at different distances between source and storage. As a result, the maximum price of CCS chains using membrane based-gas separation technology for CO2 capture and for storing the carbon dioxide in the NGH reservoir is lower than the value of the CCS chain when the CO2 is stored in a conventional site. The range of CCS cost at different pipeline length was evaluated, finding for CO2 store in conventional reservoir and in NGH site [46.3;76] and [46.3;57] [$/t], respectively at 100 km. The CO2 capture is the most impacting cost item, as shown in Figure 17. This figure illustrates to what extent each step of the CCS chain affects the total cost at different pipeline length. It seems very clear that the CO2 transportation is almost neglected for low distance, while capture and storage processes play a fundamental role in the CCS chain. As a result, for 100 km between source and NGH storage site, CO2 capture with membrane technology, transport, and storage make up 86%, 2%, and 11%, respectively, of the total CCS cost.PDF Image | Energies 14
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