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Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 33 Energies 2021, 14, 387 26 of 32 Table 8. Range of storage cost for several reservoir types, either onshore or offshore. All prices are reported in US dollars in 2013. Table 8. Range of storage cost for several reservoir types, either onshore or offshore. All prices are Reference Reservoir Type On/Off-Shore onshore Low High 1.5 10.7 Unit [$/t CO2] reported in US dollars in 2013. [68] Saline formation Onshore 6.8 12.6 [$/t CO2] Depleted O&G field—reusing wells Reference [67] [67] Reservoir Type On/Off-Shore Low High Unit Depleted O&G field—no reusing wells onshore 1.5 15.3 [$/t CO2] Depleted O&G field—reusing wells onshore 1.5 10.7 [$/t CO ] 2 Saline formation onshore 3.1 18.4 [$/t CO2] Depleted O&G field—no reusing wells onshore 1.5 15.3 [$/t CO2 ] Depleted O&G field—reusing wells offshore 3.1 13.8 [$/t CO2] Saline formation onshore 3.1 18.4 [$/t CO2 ] Depleted O&G field—reusing wells offshore 3.1 13.8 [$/t CO ] [$/t C2O2] Depleted O&G field—no reusing wells offshore 4.6 21.4 Depleted O&G field—no reusing wells offshore 4.6 21.4 [$/t CO2 ] Saline formation offshore 9.2 30.6 [$/t CO2] Saline formation offshore 9.2 30.6 [$/t CO2 ] [68] [69] Saline formation Onshore 6.8 12.6 [$/t CO2 ] [69] Poor and good reservoir properties Onshore 6.2 13.4 [$/t CO2] Poor and good reservoir properties Onshore 6.2 13.4 [$/t CO2 ] CO2 storage in NGH reservoir Offshore 1.5 11.6 [$/t CO2] CO2 storage in NGH reservoir Offshore 1.5 11.6 [$/t CO2 ] Figure 16. Cost of CCS at a different distance between source and storage. The continuous line represents the lower cost of Figure 16. Cost of CCS at a different distance between source and storage. The continuous line represents the lower cost Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW CCS, while dashed lines are the higher value of CCS. The triangles indicate the CCS cost chain when methane is produced 28 of 33 of CCS, while dashed lines are the higher value of CCS. The triangles indicate the CCS cost chain when methane is pro- viadepressurizationandtheCO replacement,whilethecirclesindicatetheCCScostchainwithconventionalstoragesites duced via depressurization and2 the CO2 replacement, while the circles indicate the CCS cost chain with conventional dsetoscrraigbedsitinesTdaebslcer8ib. ed in Table 8. The CO2 capture is the most impacting cost item, as shown in Fig Capture Transport Storage illustrates to what extent each step of the CCS chain affects the total cos line length. It seems very clear that the CO2 transportation is almost 500 200 100 50 hile capture and storage processes play fund amen distance, w a tal role As a result, for 100 km between source and NGH storage site, CO2 captu technology, transport, and storage make up 86%, 2%, and 11%, respe CCS cost. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Cost of CCS [$/tCO2] Figure 17. Total cost of CCS chain for several pipeline length, subdivided into the three components: Figcuarpetu1r7e., TtroatnaslpcoorstattoiofnC, CanSdcshtaoirnagfeorinseNvGerHa.l Fpoipr ethlienteralennspgothrt,astuiobndciovsidt wedasinutsoedthaemtheraenevcaolmuepo- nenwths:ilceafportuthre,stroarnagspe ocortsat tiinoNn,GaHndresteorrvaogirewinasNasGsuHm. Fedortwthoewtreallns.sportation cost was used a mean value while for the storage cost in NGH reservoir was assumed two wells. The whole pathway of CO2 is shown in Figure 18. The exhaust gas coming from a carbon-intensive plant is pre-treated into a CO2 separation unit. The best performance technologies are the MEA process and the membrane capture process. The CO2 captured ure 17. This figure t at different pipe- neglected for low in the CCS chain. re with membrane ctively, of the total Pipeline length [km] is sent to the NGH reservoir through the pipeline transportation system, both onshore andPDF Image | Energies 14
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