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POTENTIAL APPROACHES EXCLUDED FROM THIS ANALYSIS While many carbon removal approach- es have been proposed in addition to the previous list of technologies, this report focuses only on solutions where suffi- cient evidence of their potential efficacy is available. Other, more speculative carbon removal approaches — such as ocean iron fertilization and ocean alkalinity enhance- ment — were excluded from this analysis due to the greater risks for unintended consequences. Novel and disruptive carbon removal solutions have the potential to emerge with greater incentives for innova- tion in this area. CARBON REMOVAL “MUST READS” National Research Council. “Climate Interven- tion: Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration.” February 2015. Global Carbon Project. “Betting on Negative Emissions.” Sabine Fuss, et al. Nature Climate Change. September 2014. Global Carbon Project. “Biophysical and eco- nomic limits to negative CO2 emissions.” Peter Smith, et al. Nature Climate Change. 2015. Oxford University. “Stranded Carbon Assets and Negative Emissions Technologies.” Guy Lomax, et al. Nature Climate Change. May 2015. Natural Environment Research Council. “Emissions Reduction: Scrutinize CO2 removal methods.” Phil Williamson, et al. Nature Cli- mate Change. February 2016. •• • CHALLENGES FOR REACHING SCALE Like every new climate solution, each car- bon removal approach faces significant obstacles to reaching scale. The IPCC notes, “the availability and scale of ... Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies and methods are uncertain and CDR technologies and methods are, to varying degrees, associated with challeng- es and risks.” 21 One challenge to reaching scale is technical, as most carbon removal approaches lag behind other mitigation options in both cost and tech- nology maturity (see Figure 10). Some carbon removal solutions — such as direct air capture and bioenergy with CCS — only have a few pilot and commercial scale plants in operation, mak- ing it very difficult to estimate the cost “learning curve” associated with these technologies and thus the eventual cost of these technologies when deployed at scale.22 Furthermore, many components of CCS technologies more gener- ally have not yet reached technical viability to be deployed at large scales (Figure 11). Other carbon removal approaches require sig- nificant advances in basic science to understand their scale potential. For example, many biolog- ical sequestration approaches face uncertainties and/or variability in regards to the amount and permanence of sequestration. Measurement, verification, and accounting protocols and tools must improve for these approaches to gain wider commercial adoption. 32PDF Image | Philanthropy Final Report
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