cathode materials for sustainable sodium‐ion batteries

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cm2) to 10 mg/cm2) and only less than 1% of them reported the electrolyte amount. It is also observed that about 69% of the studies reported the cell structure. Among these, the coin-cell type (CR2016 or CR2032) is the main information stated while the coin-cell components are not commonly mentioned. Only about 2.8% of the total systems have reported details about coin- cell components. To this end, it is necessary to have a standardized and trans- parent data reporting in the battery community. It is also impor- tant to develop a common set of testing protocols among NIB battery researchers and developers to regulate common testing parameters. The following information is vital in battery data reporting: areal capacity, cathode loading and composition, con- ductive agent and binder types and contents, electrolyte amount, cathode to anode ratio, separator type, cycle number, applied current density, operating temperature, and cell configuration. Similar sets of protocols have already been laid out by the Bat- tery500 Consortium led by the US Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy for LIBs as it was followed in the work of Niu et al.195 These protocols mandate participating researchers c in order to facilitate the evaluation of LIBs. If applied to NIB research, it can serve to both create transparency across reports in the literature, as well as streamline resources toward the most urgent challenges faced by NIBs. Conclusions Manufacturing sustainable green and low-cost NIBs with high energy density based on earth-abundant elements can play a sig- nificant role in the next generation of energy storage systems. In order to establish a material design outlook for this goal, here we critically evaluated 295 research articles based on various cath- ode structures for NIBs, published in the past 10 years. Given the importance of future material supply in such perspective, we evaluated main metal elements (Mn, Fe, Al, Ti, Ni, V, and Co) used in sodium cathode materials using the following metric: abundance in the earth’s crust, global share reserves, side-effects of their mining methods, and their supply risk. Our perspective shows that Mn and Fe satisfy most promising criteria for sustain- able designs. While the recent studies show encouraging results of enhanced energy density and overall cycle performance in oxides, polyanions, and PBA cathode materials, cross analyzing all reported results suggest that higher energy density does not lead to higher capacity retention and cycle life in all cases. Con- sidering this broad outlook suggests that a cathode metal needs to be tailored in detail for optimum capacity and electrochemical cell performance. We acknowledge that this data set still has some limitations including the lack of data scalability from the half-cell to full- cell or consistent and coherent reporting of testing parameters. Thus, the analysis conducted here is not a universal standard for adoption but rather an example of a common database for NIBs which may be used to accelerate research efforts on this front. We believe such an effort would promote a more collaborative research environment, avoid unnecessary repetition of work, and benefit the entire battery community to advance the next generation of NIBs. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the support from National Science Foundation Innovation Corps (I-Corps) – Part- nerships for Innovation (PFI) program with the award number of PFI-RP2044465. This work is also sponsored in part by the UC San Diego Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (UCSD MRSEC), supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant DMR-2011924). The authors would also like to thank Dr. Jean-Marie Doux for his constructive discussions on this manuscript. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Crea- tive Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Crea- tive Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing financial interest. REFERENCES 1. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021. (2021). 2. A. Mayyas, D. Steward, M. Mann, The case for recycling: Overview and chal- lenges in the material supply chain for automotive Li-ion batteries. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 19, 1–26 (2019) 3. G. Harper et al., Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Nature 575, 75–86 (2019) 4. Minerals Yearbook - Volume 1: Metals and Minerals. National Minerals Information Center. (2019). 5. H.S. Hirsh et al., Sodium-ion batteries paving the way for grid energy stor- age. Adv. Energy Mater. 2001274, 1–8 (2020) 6. J. Tarascon, Na-ion versus Li-ion batteries: Complementarity rather than competitiveness. Joule 4, 1616–1620 (2020) 7. J.Y. Hwang, S.T. Myung, Y.K. Sun, Sodium-ion batteries: Present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 46, 3529–3614 (2017) 8. M.D. Slater, D. Kim, E. Lee, C.S. Johnson, Sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23, 947–958 (2013) 9. D.I. Iermakova, R. Dugas, M.R. Palacín, A. Ponrouch, On the comparative stability of Li and Na metal anode interfaces in conventional alkyl carbonate electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162, A7060–A7066 (2015) MRS ENERGY & SUSTAINABILITY // VOLUME XX // www.mrs.org/energy-sustainability-journal 11

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