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a plasma, which takes place on the order of 10−16 − 10−15 seconds [37]. When the electron temperature is significantly higher than the ionization potential, an electron collision can result in dissociative ionization, displayed in Equation 3.5 [37]. e + AB → A + B+ + e + e (3.5) Stepwise ionization by electron impact takes place via collision with an electron and an excited neutral. This process is relevant in plasmas with high ionization degree and high concentrations of excited neutral species, and requires multiple steps versus a single collisional event. First, energy is transferred to the neutral species via multiple electronic excitation incidents. Then a final collision with a low energy electron (energy lower than the ionization potential) can result in ionization as shown in Equation 3.6. Stepwise ionization can be more than 1,000 times faster than direct ionization and allows the final ionizing electron to have lower energy [37]. e+A→A∗ +e→A+ +e+e (3.6) Finally, ionization by collision of heavy particles is a process describing interaction between ions and excited or ground state molecules. Due to the heavy mass of ions and neutrals and the consequently low particle velocity, they are usually unable to provide the energy required for ionization. However when a species gains electronic excitation energy through a previous collision with an electron, collision with another atom can result in ionization. This is termed Penning ionization (Equation 3.7a) [37]. Even if the combined electronic energy of the participating atoms is too low, associative ionization may still occur in which the participating atoms react to form an ionized molecule (Equation 3.7b) [37]. This reaction can only work for a select few species like mercury or nitrogen. A∗ + B → B+ + e + A (3.7a) 34PDF Image | CO2 Conversion in a Microwave Plasma Catalyst System
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