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12 2 Hybrid-Electric Technology State-of-the-Art and Beyond also to be considered when selecting the battery technology [45]. Lithium battery technology is regarded as the most promising option for aircraft application. State-of-the-art lithium battery offers specific energy of circa 200 Wh/kg at cell-level [46]. In terms of power capab- ility, specific power of around 2000 W/kg can be delivered [46]. Scaling up lithium battery technology in view of application in aircraft propulsion system is challenging due to the high power and high energy requirements. Extensive research activities are expended to develop the performance of batteries. The efforts focus mainly on improving the electrodes charac- teristics, notably by working on material properties and morphology, as well as enhancing the electrolyte properties [45, 47]. Specific energy of around 400 Wh/kg is predicted to be achieved at cell-level through future progress in lithium battery technology [48]. Through combinatorial association of potential advanced cathode and anode materials, achiev- ing specific energy at cell-level in the range of 1000 Wh/kg to 1500 Wh/kg was declared feasible by Kuhn et al. [16][49] in the mid- to long-term. Future breakthrough in battery technology might also be achieved by re-thinking entirely the battery concept as indicated by the development of open battery systems like zinc-air, aluminium-air and lithium-air [47, 50]. Lithium-air battery demonstrates the highest theoretical specific energy with a estimated value of 1000 Wh/kg at cell-level [48, 51]. However, significant technological progress needs to be achieved to overcome the associated challenges and to mature the technology for in- dustrial application. Long term strategy establishes a market readiness for a horizon of year 2030 [52]. The achievement of required voltage and current output levels is obtained by connecting the battery cell in series and in parallel into a so-called battery pack [42]. Additional weight for the housing and wiring of the battery cells into the battery pack needs to be taken into account for integration at aircraft level. The gravimetric specific values at system level are consequently reduced compared to the values quoted at cell-level. Theoretical analysis indic- ating housing and wiring weights accounting up to 30% of the battery pack can be found in [48]. Batteries are considered as a means to provide electrical energy and power for hybrid-electric system. The high efficiency level of a battery is the main advantage for its utilization. How- ever, as the gravimetric specific energy of advanced batteries is expected to remain eight times lower than fossil fuel based on complete system exergy analysis [53], the integration of a battery system at aircraft level results in large detrimental weight sizing cascading effects which degrade the vehicular efficiency. The integrated performance implications of batteries as an electrical energy and power device for the propulsion of transport aircraft are thoroughly investigated in Chapter 5. 2.2.3.2 Fuel-Cells Fuel-cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy contained in fuels into electrical energy. The different types of fuel-cells are categorized by the chemical reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode as well as by the type of electrolyte. The fuel-cells considered for aircraft application are the commercially available proton exchange membrane powered by hydrogen and the under development solid oxide fuel-cells. When supplied byPDF Image | Conceptual Design Methods Hybrid-Electric Transport Aircraft
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