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2.3 Enabling Technologies for Hybrid-Electric Propulsion System 13 hydrogen, fuel-cells do not emit any carbon dioxide as the product of the chemical reaction is only water and heat, making fuel-cells applications to aircraft propulsion attractive for the achievement of the aviation goals introduced in Section 1. The required output power is reached by assembling the fuel-cells into a stack [54]. The suitable operational conditions for fuel-cells are provided by auxiliary systems referred to as the balance of plant. According to different sources compiled by Gradwohl [55], the balance of plant results in an 75% increase of the fuel-cells stack mass for state-of-the-art technology [56] while for advanced fuel-cells it could represent 50% of the fuel-cells stack mass [57]. The main disadvantage of fuel-cells is the relatively low specific power. As summarized by Gradwohl [55], the specific power for state-of-the-art fuel-cells related to continuous power is 1.24 kW/kg at stack level and 0.71 kW/kg at system level [55]. According to technological projection of advanced fuel-cells, specific power related to continuous power is estimated to reach 1.5 kW/kg at stack level and 1.0 kW/kg at system level [57]. In terms of efficiency, advanced fuel-cells are projected to exhibit an efficiency of 55% at system level [16]. However in addition to the low power density of fuel-cells stack, the challenges of integrating fuel-cells in aircraft propulsion system lays in the operations with hydrogen as a fuel. The safety issues related to the utilization of hydrogen, the detrimental integration impact of hydrogen tanks at aircraft level and the infrastructural complexity to supply hydrogen to airport remain as drawbacks. Consequently, the unique utilization of fuel-cells to provide the propulsive power requirement of transport aircraft is viewed as challenging [58]. 2.3 Enabling Technologies for Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Sys- tem Technologies considered as key enablers for the deployment of electric drives to the propul- sion system of transport aircraft are discussed in this section. It follows the argumentation published by Pornet [15]. The application of superconductivity to electric propulsion sys- tem is first reviewed in Section 2.3.1 followed by a discussion about distributed propulsion technology in Section 2.3.2. 2.3.1 Superconducting Technology In view of the large electrical power requirement for propulsion system, superconductivity is seen as an enabling technology for electric drive application [8, 24, 59]. Superconducting materials exhibit a theoretical absence of electrical resistance when operated below critical temperature [60]. The utilization of HTS materials enables to improve gravimetric specific power and efficiency of the electrical components which explains the interest of implement- ing HTS technology in aircraft propulsion systems. The most common application of HTS materials at this point in time is for electric motors [5, 7, 59] and for the transmission cables [6, 22]. Malkin and Pagonis [61] debated also the development need of fully superconducting network (including the fault management, protection and switching implications). For HTS material, the critical temperature lies between 60 K and 77 K [62]. Operation at cryogenicPDF Image | Conceptual Design Methods Hybrid-Electric Transport Aircraft
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