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In all-electric and series hybrid architectures, electrical power systems must be rated for the entire propulsive power of the airplane. If pe is too low, the airplane will be too heavy, possibly resulting in increased fuel burn compared to a conventional design. The electrical system weight appears as the empty weight component of mTO in the range equations (4) and negatively impacts range. Like turbines, fuel cells convert liquid fuel to power [8]. Fuel cells do so with high efficiency, but their poor specific power makes them uncompetitive with batteries or turbogenerators except in niche applications where hydrogen is available and low thermal signature is paramount [21]. Specific power of batteries pb can be an important constraint on the design problem. Certain portions of the flight envelope, such as takeoff, may require substantially more power than cruise. Batteries must be capable of discharging quickly enough to meet this demand over the duration of the maneuver; unfortunately, high pb strictly trades off with eb [28]. See Section 5.2 for a more detailed discussion of battery characteristics and design trades. Due to the speculative nature of projecting the performance of future technologies, researchers should adopt the practice of calculating the sensitivity of designs with re- spect to both specific power and specific energy [29]. This enables a fair comparison between competing concepts and makes exposure to technological risk more transpar- ent. The efficiency of electrical components is a third key technological factor. The overall electrical efficiency for a direct current (DC) turboelectric configuration can be written as, ηe = ηgηrηbusηiηm, (5) where ηg/r/bus/i are the efficiencies of the generator, rectifier, bus, and inverter, and ηm is the motor efficiency. We define these components in more detail in Section 5. All-electric and parallel hybrid designs do not require a generator or rectifier. Using an AC architecture eliminates the rectifier and inverter. Multiplied together, the electrical efficiencies are analogous to the thermal efficiency of a combustion engine. The propul- sive efficiency ηp is considered separately. Pornet et al. [20] provides a good discussion of electrical component efficiency stackups and power constraints for a series hybrid aircraft. Unlike specific energy, efficiencies are bounded at 1 and are already relatively large, so the influence on aircraft range is not as strong as that of e and p. The larger problem comes from thermal management of waste heat inside the aircraft. If we assume that all electrical inefficiency results in resistive heating, improving ηe from 97% to 99% results in 2% higher range but a 67% reduction in waste heat. Efficiencies of specific types of power electronics are addressed in Section 5 and thermal management systems in Section 6. Overall efficiency presents a theoretical advantage of all-electric aircraft over com- bustion engines and turboelectric designs. The GE9X engine’s 60:1 pressure ratio equates to an ideal thermal efficiency of nearly 70%, whereas electrical component ef- ficiencies near 100% are already within reach [30, 31]. At current technology levels, the induced drag penalty from carrying heavy batteries outweighs the total energy 8PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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