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advantage gained from eliminating the thermodynamic cycle for long-range missions. 2.3 Performance Metrics The literature contains a wide array of metrics used to assess the “goodness” of elec- tric propulsion concepts and serve as objectives for optimization. Some examples of appropriate objectives are as follows: Fuel burn is the most common metric since it contributes to both operating costs and CO2 emissions. Fuel burn is often normalized by mission range and seat count or cargo weight. Total energy combines fuel burn with energy sourced from batteries. CO2 emissions depend on the amount and type of energy used during the mission as well as on how electricity was generated. This introduces a location-dependence to the problem, as certain regions may generate grid power using more or less carbon-intensive methods. Operating cost may be defined in several ways. Cash operating cost (COC) measures the variable flight costs including fuel, maintenance, and crew salaries. Direct operating cost (DOC) includes COC and the cost of ownership, which is generally proportional to the cost to purchase the airplane [32]. Cost per available seat mile/kilometer (CASM/CASK) normalizes operating cost by the number of passenger seats available and range. CASM is an im- portant cost metric for commercial airlines. Alternatively, trip cost does not normalize by seats. Takeoff gross weight (TOGW) is a suitable proxy for the cost to build/purchase an aircraft in the absence of better cost estimates. Specific air range (SAR) formulations are preferred by some authors [33]. SAR measures the distance flown per mass of fuel (higher is better). Energy-specific air range (ESAR) normalizes by total energy (units of m/J). Cost-specific air range (COSAR) incorporates the cost of energy, which is important in hybrid systems (units of m/currency). The most comprehensive measure of the economic goodness of an airplane is the total operating CASM/CASK. This metric responds to aerodynamic, propulsive, and electrical efficiency; specific energy and power; weight; system reliability and complex- ity; and the relative prices of fuels and electricity. Normalizing by seat count allows appropriate comparison of concepts at different sizes and scales. Other performance parameters are closely watched, but typically are treated as con- straints rather than objective functions, including design range (strongly influenced by eb), takeoff (balanced) field length (mainly a function of takeoff thrust/power, TOGW, wing area, and high-lift performance), approach speed (mainly a function of maxi- mum landing weight (MLW), wing area, and high-lift performance), noise (including community and interior noise), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. 9PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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