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3.1 Commercial Products, Flight Test Vehicles, and Prototypes The experimental history of electric aviation dates back to over a century ago, when Santos-Dumont devised an electric airship [34]. In the 1980s and 1990s, very high aspect ratio solar aircraft demonstrations were pursued by NASA and others. This experi- mental heritage resulted in high-altitude long-endurance (HALE) or “pseudosatellite” systems such as the QinetiQ/Airbus Zephyr. Such aircraft are configured differently than manned electric aircraft and have distinct technical challenges. Even at low speeds and power levels, solar cells typically do not justify the additional weight and drag in manned applications [40]. The first manned, electric fixed wing aircraft was the Brditschka MB-E1, which flew for less than 10 minutes in 1973 [24]. Much more recently, several self-launching electric motor gliders have been offered for sale. The first to earn a type certificate was the Antares 20E [34]. Several lightweight prototypes by independent designers flew in the late 2000s, including the Electraflyer C, Yuneec 430, and an all-electric modified Cri-Cri [40]. Large industry firms then converted demonstrators from glider airframes, including the Boeing HK-36 fuel-cell demonstrator [36], series hybrid Diamond DA-36 E-Star [38, 43], and all-electric Pipistrel Taurus Electro [39]. The NASA/CAFE foundation Green Flight challenge in 2011 inspired three new experimental electric aircraft with extended range, including a four-seat variant of the Taurus Electro, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University’s parallel hybrid Eco-Eagle, and IFB Stuttgart’s eGenius [34, 41, 40]. The culmination of these lightweight, manned demonstrators is the Pipistrel Alpha Electro, which is designed as a two-seat trainer aircraft and targeted at the U.S. Light Sport Aircraft category (although it is not yet certified in the U.S. at the time of this writing) [48]. The Alpha Electro is expected to cost dramatically less to operate than piston trainers and does not emit lead pollution from burning 100LL aviation fuel. More recent demonstrators have focused on scaling up power to 100kW and above. Chip Yates set multiple speed and time-to-climb records in an all-electric Long EZ, followed by Siemens AG which installed 260kW of electrical power in an Extra 300 [42, 50]. The Siemens effort set specific power records for a flight-rated electric motor: 5.2 kW/kg including power conversion with a liquid thermal management system [50, 73]. While these aircraft set records for propulsive electrical power, the Boeing 787’s electrical system generates over 1MW of electrical power using mechanical off-takes from turbine engines [74, 75]. To the author’s knowledge, this is the highest-power electrical system flying on an aircraft today, though undisclosed military applications may generate even more power for mission systems such as radar and directed-energy weapons. Figure 3 shows the progression of tested and proposed manned electric demonstra- tors. There is a clear linear power/weight trend for battery and turboelectric demon- strators focused on maximum efficiency; most of them are based on similar motor glider airframes. NASA’s upcoming X-57 Maxwell demonstrator falls neatly into the upper end of this trend. The outliers are the speed-optimized Yates and Siemens aircraft with much higher power-to-weight ratios. In late 2017, Airbus, Rolls-Royce, and Siemens announced a partnership to build a 13PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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