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ment [111, 10]. BLI benefit is proportional to the percentage of boundary layer flow captured at the fan inlet [54]. While boundary layer ingestion is possible with conventional engines (such as the MIT/Aurora D-8 concept [112]), the unique scaling properties of electric motors make BLI more feasible. Combustion engines generally pay a performance, weight, and effi- ciency penalty when scaled down in size, while electric motors scale mostly linearly [83]; therefore, turbofan or turboprop aircraft tend to have as few engines as feasible. Elec- tric motors are also physically smaller, making wingtip and tailcone installations fea- sible (as in the X-57 Maxwell and STARC-ABL). Since the boundary layer extends to a small, finite thickness past the wing or fuselage, numerous small electric fans may cover more of the wing and body and ingest a higher fraction of boundary layer flow than a few larger-diameter turbine propulsors. 4.3 Aerodynamic Effects Electric motors enable new propulsion installation possibilities, resulting in potential aerodynamic benefits. There are three proposed aerodynamic benefits of distributed electric propulsion: installation drag reduction, high lift augmentation, and swirl can- cellation. The overall benefit is unproven and will depend on the mission and configu- ration but is probably between 0 and 8% drag [110]. Engine nacelles and pylons introduce propulsion installation drag, comprised of friction, interference, and wave drag. Along with nacelle and fan weight, propulsive aerodynamic drag serves as a practical limit on turbofan bypass ratio. Wick et al. [113] showed an 8% installed drag reduction by embedding distributed propulsors in the wing on a transonic military transport concept. Engine installations embedded in the fuselage surface may save wetted area equivalent to nearly half of a typical podded nacelle [112]. This benefit can be booked as a reduction in drag for fixed bypass ratio, or an increase in bypass ratio for fixed drag. High lift augmentation through distributed propulsion reduces cruise drag by en- abling higher wing loading (and therefore, lower wetted wing area and viscous drag). With higher overall CL, approach speed and takeoff field length constraints can be met with a smaller wing. The NASA LEAPtech wing concept and X-57 demonstrator are designed to test this idea; Stoll et al. [114] predict that cruise L/D of 20 can be achieved, compared to a baseline L/D of 11 through a 2.5–3 times larger wing load- ing [51]. The LEAPtech wing has been studied using CFD and is estimated to augment CL by 1.7 to 2.4 (in absolute terms) [115, 116, 117]; however, a loss of power may re- sult in a sudden stall [80]. In the U.S., transport category airplanes may not claim a powered lift benefit to stall speed (and thus, approach speed) for certification (14 CFR 25.103 and 25.125); a small credit in takeoff speeds may be claimed. There does not seem to be an equivalent regulatory obstacle for Part 23 commuter and general aviation aircraft to take advantage of powered lift. Finally, wingtip propulsors have been proposed in order to take advantage of can- celling some swirl in the wingtip vortices, but are not as well studied as BLI and lift augmentation. Miranda and Brennan [118] published experimentally-validated low-fidelity results. The X-57 design study booked this benefit as a drag reduction 21PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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