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estimated between 5% and 10% using low-fidelity methods and used Miranda and Brennan’s findings (though not their code) for further analysis [117]. Eviation’s Al- ice concept also uses wingtip-mounted pusher propellers. The compactness of electric motors enables wingtip propulsion. 4.4 Sizing Effects In addition to the wing loading increase possible with blown lift, EP may result in favorable control surface and engine sizing effects. The one-engine-inoperative (OEI) takeoff condition provides such an example. Multiengine aircraft must continue a takeoff at a minimum climb gradient after the loss of one engine. In conventional tube- and-wing aircraft, this results in oversized engines (to maintain minimum takeoff and climb thrust) and oversized vertical tails (to trim the large OEI yawing moment); thus, the OEI condition imposes weight, drag, and cost penalties on conventional designs. Electric propulsion provides design freedom to eliminate these penalties. The N3- X concept studies have illustrated how power distribution architectures may prevent asymmetric loss of thrust following loss of a power source [57]. Furthermore, if one or more fans are lost, compensating motors on the same side may be throttled up to higher burst power to cancel out the yawing moment. Modern commercial airplane vertical tails may be sized by OEI yawing moments. Reduced thrust asymmetry through EP is likely to alleviate this constraint, leading to smaller vertical tails, lower weight, and lower drag [80, 25]; however, in a tube-and-wing configuration, other constraints such as stability and crosswind landing are likely to limit the value of this benefit [25]. No studies have itemized this benefit separately from overall weight and L/D improve- ments. Turbines in hybrid electric aircraft may be further downsized by using battery power during power-intensive phases of flight, and during normal operations and failure con- ditions. For example, a series hybrid may supplement takeoff and top-of-climb power with batteries, sizing the turbogenerators to a less critical condition [80]. Whenever turbomachinery is downsized, weight and cost reductions are sure to follow; if the size of podded engines is reduced, installation drag reductions may be achieved as well. Turbine engines are subject to thrust and power lapse at altitude, rendering top-of- climb the engine sizing constraint in some cases [119]. Electric fans are not subject to power lapse with altitude when powered by batteries [51]. The STARC-ABL was able to reduce the thrust and size of its turbofans substantially using the improved thrust lapse characteristics of its electric tailcone propulsor, resulting in a virtuous cycle of lower weight and lower viscous drag [54]. 4.5 Weight Effects The most apparent disadvantage of electric propulsion today is weight. Every electric aircraft study must account for the weight of energy storage, transmission, and follow- on structural growth. The direct TOGW penalty due to energy storage is inversely proportional to eb and linear with range. TOGW growth is especially pronounced at long range. Since 22PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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