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batteries do not lose mass during flight, they carry a “hidden” weight and induced drag penalty compared to fuels. It is difficult to overcome the weight penalty on longer missions with all-electric or significantly hybridized designs with today’s technology; the current frontier is 244 nmi range (for the Pipistrel Taurus G4 and eGenius) [40]. Electronic, propulsive, and thermal management components affect empty weight directly. This may be a benefit or penalty depending on the systems architecture, mission, configuration, and technology level. For example, the STARC-ABL claims a net propulsive weight decrease due to synergistic propulsive efficiency and turbofan sizing benefits [54]. The XTI Tri-Fan switched from a triple turboshaft design to a series hybrid electric architecture and booked a 37% gross weight reduction [120]. At the opposite extreme, the ECO-150R propulsion system is one-third of the overall empty weight [67]—about three times heavier than the 10.5% engine empty weight fraction of a 737-900ER or 777-300ER. Distributed propulsion may allow fan structural weight reduction by reducing tip speeds, and by relaxing bird strike requirements through redundancy [57]; on the other hand, BLI fans will need to be distortion-tolerant, which may add weight [112]. Distributed propulsion requires more aircraft structure to be reinforced against fan-blade loss (14 CFR 33.94), which adds weight. Energy storage, electronic, and TMS weight also affect structural weight. For ex- ample, lower eb leads to heavier batteries and higher rated maximum takeoff weight. This increases structural loads, structural gauge weight, and empty weight and reduces range in a vicious cycle. This cycle effectively prohibits long-range, manned, all-electric flights at today’s technology levels. 4.6 System Safety Effects Electric propulsion presents new and unknown challenges for airplane designers and safety engineers, but also exciting opportunities to eliminate known risks. All-electric aircraft substitute the hazard of flammable jet fuel with the new hazard of lithium batteries (or some future chemistry). Aircraft manufacturers and regulatory agencies have long service experience with liquid fuels, and the resulting engineering controls (such as fuel tank inerting) are very well developed. Batteries are also a known aviation hazard but have much less service experience and fail in seemingly more complex modes. The FAA has imposed special certification conditions on the use of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries in aircraft [121]. The primary hazard is thermal runaway, when rapid, self-sustaining increases in temperature and pressure occur in battery cells and may lead to an external fire. Toxic gases may also be released. Thermal runaway may result from overdischarging, overcharging, and internal short-circuits (see Section 5.2 for additional details on battery charge/discharge characteristics). Several lithium bat- tery thermal events led to the grounding of the entire 787 fleet, and personal electronics lithium batteries carried in cargo are the suspected cause of multiple fatal air freighter accidents. A lithium battery module designed for the X-57 demonstrator required a major redesign following a failed thermal runaway during test, adding 45kg empty weight [87]. Thermal runaway was identified as one of two critical hazards for the X-57 program because of combined loss of power and potential structural damage [52]. Crashworthiness is an area of potential benefit but high uncertainty. Liquid fuel, an 23PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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