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obvious hazard following a crash, is replaced with battery modules. While no aircraft have faced survivable crashes with sizable lithium battery packs, electric automobiles will be a valuable source of data; automotive design practices for crash-tolerance of lithium batteries are reviewed by Arora et al. [122]. Much more data and testing will be required to refine the design of aerospace propulsion battery packs. High-voltage electrical systems present another novel hazard in aircraft design. In- flight hazards include the release of energy through short circuits and arcing (see Sec- tion 5). At a minimum, this will result in degradation of propulsion system perfor- mance, and could lead to fire. High-voltage electrical systems also present a hazard to maintainers and ground handlers. This will likely be a similar hazard to aircraft hydraulic systems, which require special engineering controls and lockout/tagout pro- cedures to avoid injury. All-electric aircraft eliminate turbines and their associated high-energy bladed disks. The FAA treats turbine disk burst zones as special hazard areas and requires that certain flight-critical systems not be exposed; this introduces spatial integration con- straints. Electric fans turn at much slower speeds, reducing the potential hazard from blade loss. Aircraft with distributed propulsion may be more tolerant to bird strikes and engine loss than SOA twin turbofan configurations [57]. Distributed fans provide more redundancy and could potentially continue providing thrust in the rare circum- stances that have caused dual engine failures; however, embedded propulsors (as in the ECO-150) may expose primary wing structure or systems to high-energy blade impacts. N3-X study collaborators Rolls-Royce and the University of Strathclyde produced conceptual safety analyses and trade studies of high-power EP systems; Armstrong et al. is the most general [57]. More detailed studies included fault tree analysis of loss of thrust [94, 96] and superconducting fault protection considerations [95, 123]. Specific hazards related to NASA’s current electric demonstrator efforts are analyzed by Clarke et al. [52] and Papathakis et al. [53]. In summary, electric propulsion potentially improves system safety during failure conditions and eliminates hazards associated with jet fuel, but introduces new hazards such as thermal runaway of battery packs. Methods to substantiate safety of EP sys- tems, service experience from demonstrators, and design best practices will be crucial in reducing risk in this area. 4.7 Noise and Heat Signature Effects Noise reduction is a widely claimed benefit of electric propulsion [83, 124, 125, 46]; un- fortunately, the published literature does not include many quantitative noise predic- tions. One of the most relevant is a noise analysis of the SUGAR High (high-technology turbofan) and SUGAR Volt (parallel hybrid electric). The study found that SUGAR Volt was only about 1 EPNdB quieter than SUGAR High [17]; however, both are rel- atively conventional configurations with podded engines. Moore and Fredericks note that the noise savings from electric propulsion are primarily due to an enlarged design space for propulsion integration, which enables more effective shielding than can be achieved with conventional engines [83]. SUGAR High and Volt do not use shielding 24PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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