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the amount of shaft power that can be extracted [13]. United Technologies and GE independently announced successful demonstrations of near-MW scale power offtakes from low-pressure spools [149, 150]. 6 Thermal Management While electric motors are more efficient at generating shaft power than turbine engines, turbines exhaust nearly all the waste heat into the ambient air. Because electrical com- ponents are located within the aircraft interior, ambient cooling is not sufficient to keep conventional (non-superconducting) electronics at their operating temperature. Super- conducting electrical power systems eliminate resistive heating but introduce a different problem: keeping high-temperature superconducting (HTS) materials sufficiently cold compared to the ambient temperature. Both technologies will require thermal man- agement systems. ESAero has published most extensively on thermal management of conventional electrical machines. Freeman et al. describe the general EP thermal management design problem, analysis methods, and solutions [119]. These methods were used to design and analyze the ECO-150R [67]. The ECO-150R produces nearly 1.5 MW of waste heat at the critical top-of-climb condition. The authors describe the design and analysis of a recirculating liquid cooling system with a ram-air radiator. The radiator is designed to use heated air to generate some useful thrust to offset the radiator drag (the Meredith effect). This feature was first implemented on the North American P-51 Mustang. Including the Meredith effect, the direct cooling system contribution to drag was around 2%–3% at cruise, and the total cooling system was 20% of the weight of all the power electronics and motors. United Technologies created a parallel hybrid GTF engine concept, including a sized liquid cooling system [151]. The critical condition was on a hot day prior to takeoff; a fan was required to pull cooling air through the radiator duct until sufficient ram air became available in flight. The authors concluded that once weight and drag increases from the TMS were included, the concept was not competitive with a conventional GTF. The paper includes a design sensitivity of TMS weight with maximum battery temperature; heat-sensitive batteries require more cooling power and weight. A Rolls- Royce/Georgia Tech study of an parallel hybrid engine similarly identified the challenge of cooling the batteries, and that the TMS was most challenged prior to takeoff [142]. Vratny et al. [145] present analytic equations for conceptual design of an electric aircraft TMS, including a rough consideration of liquid coolant properties (density, viscosity, and specific heat capacity). Several recent NASA design studies included thermal management considerations for non-superconducting architectures. Two conceptual weight estimates have been published. Jansen et al. estimate that the X-57’s TMS will be 5% of the overall electronic weight (including the battery) [152]. The latest STARC-ABL assessment includes TMS weight equal to about 6% of the weight of the power electronics (not including a battery) [55]. More detailed NASA study results have also been published for the X-57. Clarke 31PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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