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et al. [52] describe wire design trade studies including resistive heating considerations. Schnulo et al. [153] describe design and analysis of a flow-through air-cooled motor and inverter. Falck et al. [141] describe trajectory optimization subject to thermal constraints; the study found that X-57’s air-cooled motors reach temperature limits and constrain the climb rate. The heat exchanger area can be reduced significantly if climb rate requirements are relaxed. Unlike conventional electronics, superconductors require extremely low operating temperatures — 20K to 60K. In exchange, Joule heating and resulting diffuse waste heat from a conventional electrical system is virtually eliminated. Superconducting thermal management has been most extensively explored through the NASA N3-X study. The proposed architecture uses a reverse Brayton cycle cryocooler, where shaft power from engines or electric motors cools a working fluid to cryogenic temperatures. Brown [90] included cryocooling requirements in the tabulated efficiency and specific power of individual electric machines; however, the analysis does not account for heat leaks, which may be very significant due to the large temperature differential. The N3- X propulsion system, including electrical machines and TMS, is expected to increase fuel burn by about 6%, before accounting for advantages enabled by turboelectric propulsion. Berg et al. [100] conducted a broad superconducting TMS technology sensitivity study which produced less favorable results. While Brown reported end-to-end propul- sion losses of approximately 2%, under Berg et al.’s most optimistic technology as- sumptions, cryocooling requirements alone account for 2% power loss. They identify several key technology parameters which influence the viability of a superconducting propulsion system: machine “cold” inefficiency (superconductor AC losses), cryocooler power density, cryocooler compressor efficiency, cable mass per meter, machine specific power (motor/generator), maximum superconductor operating temperature, and cryo- gen tank weight. Berg et al. conclude that, due to very low operating temperatures of foreseeable superconducting materials, “pre-cooling” using cryogenic fuel, such as liquid methane, will be necessary for the viability of an HTS turboelectric propulsion system. The National Academy consensus report [10] summarizes technical challenges with cryogenic power systems, including cryocooler weight, inability to handle transient loads, and difficulty with voltage regulation; thus, the committee does not expect that “cryogenic power generation or power distribution will be ready for incorporation in an aircraft propulsion system within [a] 30-year time frame.” 7 Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization Design optimization is an increasingly important tool in advanced conceptual aircraft design, and performing optimization requires integrated modeling and simulation ca- pabilities. While individual simulation capabilities have been addressed in previous sections, the intent of this section is to discuss major, multi-year modeling efforts and describe the level of fidelity of unified simulation frameworks. One published optimization environment for design of electric fixed-wing aircraft is 32PDF Image | Electric, hybrid, and turboelectric fixed-wing aircraft
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