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Vertical to positive slope of the vapor curve on T-s diagram to eliminate need for superheating, increase efficiency, and lower condenser cost. A tendency of the expanding vapor is to remain close to saturation, without need for superheating. If the vapor is close to saturation as it is discharged from the turbine, its temperature will not differ greatly from the condensation temperature, and irreversible transfers of heat (within a recuperator) from the vapor to the cooler liquid returning from the pump will not be required. Any such irreversibility decreases cycle efficiency. Sufficiently high volatility to boil at or above ambient temperature, meaning that the condenser can be operated at or above atmospheric pressure. A lower-than-atmospheric (i.e., vacuum) condenser is undesirable, since such systems incur additional cost and complexity to prevent in-leakage of ambient air. Fluids with low vapor pressures at ambient temperatures require the use of subatmospheric condensers or costly, cascaded cycles. Condensers that operate at pressures below atmospheric are unacceptable in ORCs because the ingress of air and moisture through unavoidable minute leaks catalyzes degradation reactions in the working fluid [2]. Other desirable characteristics of the working fluid include: High thermal conductivity in the vapor phase to maximize heat transfer High autoignition temperature, preferably above TEG temperature High specific heat ratio Low environmental impact and toxicity Low overall system pressure to reduce component cost Minimal reactivity with air or materials of construction Low flammability rating and transport hazard class Low freezing point, as this affects operability in cold climates. On the basis of these criteria, cyclopentane was chosen as the best match to system requirements. Table 2 shows the comparative scores of the leading fluid selections from each category from 1 to 5, with 1 being best. Some selection criteria may, in practice, have a stronger weight than others, so the additive scoring used in the table must be regarded as approximate. Overall, cyclopentane shows the best alignment with the selection priorities, with thiophene and acetone close in second place. Cyclopentane (C5H10) is an alicyclic hydrocarbon derived from petroleum. Its saturation temperature is slightly above typical ambient air temperatures at atmospheric pressure, and it has a relatively high critical temperature and pressure compared with linear (n-) and iso-pentane. Among the working fluids tested, the halogenous refrigerants best displayed the desired tendency to approach the saturated condition during expansion. Unfortunately, the chemical fragility of these compounds, along with their tendency to form corrosive hydrofluoric acid in the process of breaking down, limits the range of their operating temperatures. Among the refrigerants, methyl iodide had the best thermodynamic performance, but was excluded due to its high toxicity. Among the aldehydes, acetaldehyde performed best thermodynamically, although low stability and extremely high flammability make it impractical for an ORC product. The last group, silicones, tended to perform poorly as a category due to the relatively large amount of heat that the recuperator must remove from the expander discharge vapor of these fluids. The recuperator is a significant source of irreversibility in a silicone-based ORC. Among simple aliphatic hydrocarbons, cyclopentane produced the best performance, as well as a relatively low flammability compared with the non-cyclic pentane isomers commonly used in ORC cycles. Also, like other simple hydrocarbons, cyclopentane displays a tendency to superheat during the expansion of the vapor, but along with the other stable cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbon, cyclohexane, the tendency is much less than in the case of standard, straight-chain hydrocarbons with comparable 9PDF Image | Final Report Modifications and Optimization of the Organic Rankine Cycle to Improve the Recovery of Waste Heat
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